luJC FEB 5 1912 GIFT LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. OF •- Class KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY BY CHARLES A. KING VI rtlRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING EASTERN HIGH SCHOOL, BAY CITY, MICHIGAN NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY KING'S SERIES IN WOODWORK AND CARPENTRY ELEMENTS OF WOODWORK ELEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY INSIDE FINISHING HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS CopTRionr, 1912, BT CHARLES A. KINO. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. W. P. I PREFACE TO THE SERIES THIS series consists of five volumes, four of which are intended as textbooks for pupils in manual-training, industrial, trade, tech- nical, or normal schools. The fifth book of the series, the " Hand- book in Woodwork and Carpentry," is for the use of teachers and of normal students who expect to teach the subjects treated in the other four volumes. Of the pupils' volumes, the first two, " Elements of Woodwork " and " Elements of Construction," are adapted to the needs of stu- dents in manual-training schools, or in any institution in which elementary woodwork is taught, whether as purely educational handwork, or as preparatory to a high, or trade, school course in carpentry or vocational training. The volumes "Constructive Carpentry" and "Inside Finish- ing" are planned with special reference to the students of tech- nical, industrial, or trade schools, who have passed through the work of the first two volumes, or their equivalent. The subjects treated are those which will be of greatest value to both the pro- spective and the finished workman. For the many teachers who are obliged to follow a required course, but who are allowed to introduce supplementary or optional models under certain conditions, and for others who have more liberty and are able to make such changes as they see fit, this series will be found perfectly adaptable, regardless of the grades taught. To accomplish this, the material has been arranged by topics, which may be used by the teacher irrespective of the sequence, as each topic has to the greatest extent possible been treated independently. Hi 228772 iv PREFACE TO THE SERIES The author is indebted to Dr. George A. Hubbell, Ph.D., now President of the Lincoln Memorial University, for encouragement and advice in preparing for and planning the series, and to George R. Swain, Principal of the Eastern High School of Bay City, Michigan, for valuable aid in revising the manuscript. Acknowledgment is due various educational and trade periodi- cals, and the publications of the United States Departments of Education and of Forestry, for the helpful suggestions that the author has gleaned from their pages. The illustrations in this Series, with the exception of the pho- tographs in " Elements of Woodwork " and " Elements of Con- struction ," are from drawings made by the author. CHARLES A. KING. BAY CITY, MICHIGAN. PREFACE TO CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY BEFORE undertaking the work included in the following pages, the student should have passed through that contained in " Ele- ments of Woodwork " and " Elements of Construction," or their equivalent. In preparing the material for this book, it has been the author's first purpose to arrange and present the subjects in such a man- ner that they will be easily adaptable to use in technical schools for students of architecture and engineering, and in trade and industrial schools for the teaching of the principles and methods of building construction, to students who plan to make carpentry a means of livelihood. The matter as arranged has special reference to the laying out and planning? of the construction of wooden buildings, for the foreman as well as for the one who is to work under his direc- tion. The important problems met with in preparing a house for the inside finish are discussed, and the relation between the carpenter and other mechanics is explained. The teacher should see that there is a select library for the use of the students, including the leading trade periodicals, from which should be selected subjects for discussion, research, and essays bearing upon the different stages of the work. The method of teaching the use of the steel square was devised by the author to meet classroom conditions; the formulas and instruction given may be applied to any pitch or plate angle or to any combination of them. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I. MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS. — 1. Building sites ; 2. Subsoil; 3. Laying out the foundation ; 4. Excavations ; 5. Ledges ; 6. Foot- ing courses ; 7. Stonework ; 8. Damp proofing ; 9. Brickwork ; 10. Bonding; 11. Anchors; 12. Openings; 13. Corbelling ; 14. Brick walls ; 15. Chimneys : 16. The carpenter and the mason . . 1 CHAPTER II. FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION. — 17. The full frame ; 18. The half frame ; 19. The balloon frame ; 20. Sills ; 21. Corner posts ; 22. Braces ; 23. Floor joists ; 24. Studding ; 25. Porch construc- tion ; 26. Trusses ; 27. Timbers ; 28. Selection of timber . .23 CHAPTER III. MILL CONSTRUCTION. —29. Introduction; 30. Details 44 CHAPTER IV. THE CARPENTER'S STEEL SQUARE, CARPENTER'S GEOME- TRY.—31. Steel square ; 32. Bevel board ; 33. To mark divisions ; 34. To lay out regular polygons ; 35. To bisect an angle ; 36. To find the center of a circle from three given points ; 37. To con- struct the greatest square within a given circle ; 38. To construct a square ; 39. To construct a circle which shall equal the area of two given circles ; 40. To octagon a given timber ; 41. Given the side of an octagon, to find the width ; 42. Given the side of a hexa- gon, to find the width ; 43. Given the side of an octagon, to find the diagonal ; 44. Given the side of a hexagon, to find the diagonal ; 45. Given the width of an octagon, to find the length of a side ; 46. Given the width of a hexagon, to find the side .... 63 CHAPTER V. ROOF CONSTRUCTION. — 47. Pitches of roofs ; 48. The different forms of roofs ; 49. The plan of the roof ; 50. The com- mon rafter; 51. Lookouts; 52. The ridge; 53. Hip rafters; 54. Valley rafters ; 55. Jack rafters ; 56. Cripple rafters ; 57. Collar beams ; 58. Struts ; 59. Purlins and hoppers ; 60. Octagon rafters ; 61. Hexagonal rafters ; 62. The king-post roof ; 63. Backing an octagon hip rafter ; 64. Octagon cheek cuts ; 65. Irregular roofs ; 66. Curb roofs ; 67. Curvilinear hips ; 68. Flat roof ; 69. Dormer windows . .... ....... 68 Vii viii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER VI. BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH. — 70. Boarding in; 71. Cornices; 72. Gable finish; 73. Outside finish; 74. Con- ductors ; 75. Finials ; 76. Circular gutters ; 77. Hake moldings ; 78. Siding a circular tower ; 79. Scribing ; 80. Dome roof . . 108 CHAPTER VII. ROOF COVERINGS. — 81. Shingles; 82. Flashing; 83. Metal roofs; 84. Slate roof ; 85. Gravel roofs . . .128 CHAPTER VIII. PLASTERING. — 86. Laths; 87. Corner finish; 88. Grounds; 8:>. 1'lastering; 90. Back plastering; 91. Deaden- ing .. 143 GLOSSARY OK TEKMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE AND CARPENTRY . . 153 INDEX 171 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PACE 1. Location of a House upon an Irregularly Shaped Lot ... 3 2. Laying out the Foundation 4 3. Large Square for Laying out Foundations 5 4. Building a Foundation upon a Ledge ...... 7 5. Rubble Foundation built upon a Hillside 8 6. Coursed Ashlar . 9 7. Broken Ashlar 10 8. Damp Proofing 0. Inside Blind Drain . 10. Inside Open Drain . . 13 11. English Bond .... ... 15 12. American Bond 15 13. Brick Veneering 14. Strap Anchor .... ... 10 15." Plate Anchor . 1<>. Lintels and Rowlock Arches . . . • • • 17. Corbelling . ... 17 18. Wooden Plate for the Top of a Brick Wall 19. Mortised Joint, Drawbored 20. Full Frame House 21. Balloon Frame 22. Framing of Sills at the Corners . 27 23. Beveled Shoulder Joint . 24. Joint between the Corner Post and Sills . 25. Built Corner Posts . 26. Ledger Board, or Ribband 27. Position of the Framing Square in Finding the Length of a Brace . 29 28. Beveled Shoulder Brace Joint . ... 30 29. Sizing Floor Joists to fit Sills and Girders . .31 30. Bridging . 31. Partitions 32. Straightening a Crooked Stud . . • . . 35 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGB 33. Porch Construction 36 34. Ramped Rail 37 36. Trussed Girder 38 36. Girder stiffened by Rods 38 37. Built Trussed Girder 38 38. Flitch Plate Girder 39 30. Scissors Truss 39 40. Howe Truss 40 41. Floor Plan of a Section of a Mill 45 42. Cross Section of Above Mill 40 43. Longitudinal Section of Above Mill 47 44. Construction of Above Mill at Wall and Posts .... 48 45. The Carpenter's Steel Square 54 40. Diagonal Scale of lOOths of an Inch 65 47. Dividing a Board into Kqual Spaces ...... 50 48. Construction of a Circle with a Steel Square 57 49. Construction of an Equilateral Triangle . . . . .57 50. Construction of a Hexagon ' . 68 51. Construction of a Rectangle ........ 58 52. Construction of an Octagon 60 53. Bisecting an Angle . 50 54. Construction of a Circle from Three Given Points .... 00 55. Construction of the Greatest Possible Square within a Given Circle 00 50. Construction of a Square One Half of the Area of a Given Square . (51 57. Construction of a Square which shall Equal Twice the Area of a Given Square .......... 01 58. Construction of a Circle Kqual to the Area of Two Given Circles . 01 50. To Octagon a Given Timber. Method 1 . '. . . . 02 00. To Octagon a Given Timber. Method 2 02 01. To Octagon a Given Timber. Method 3 . ..... 02 02. To Octagon a Given Timber. Method 4 03 03. Given the Side of an Octagon, to find the Width .... 03 04. Given the Side of a Hexagon, to find the Width . . . 04 05. Given the Side of an Octagon, to find the Diagonal ... 04 00. Given the Width of a Hexagon, to rind the Side . 65 07. Roof Dimensions . . 08 08. Roof Pitches 08 00. Different Forms of Koofs 70 70. Roof Plan 70 71. Common Rafters . ........ 71 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi FIG. PAGE 72. Laying out the Plumb or Ridge Cuts of a Common Rafter . . 73 73. Laying out the Seat or Plate Cut of a Common Rafter ... 75 74. To find the Length of the Lookout 77 75. Allowance for Thickness of the Ridge ...... 78 76. Diagonal of the Thickness of the Hip Rafter . . . . .79 77. Ridge and Hip Rafters 80 78. Method of Finding the Hip Pitch Line of the Thickness of the Ridge 82 79. Method of Finding the Cheek Cuts . . . . . .84 80. The Graphic Method of Finding the Lengths and Angles of Rafters 86 81. Plate Cut of Valley Rafters 86 82. Backed Hip Rafter ; Square Hip Rafter 87 83. Method of Laying out the Backing ...... 87 84. Method of Finding the Lengths of Jack Rafters .... 89 85. Method of Finding the Lengths of Collar Beams .... 92 86. The Strut 93 87i Method of Finding the Length of a Strut 93 88. Method of Laying out Purlins and Hoppers 95 89. Second Method of Laying out Purlins and Hoppers . . .96 90. Third Method of Laying out Purlins and Hoppers. ... 96 91. Fourth Method or the Graphic Method of Laying out Purlins and Hoppers 97 92. Apex of an Octagonal Roof 98 93. Apex of a Hexagonal Roof ........ 99 94. A King-Post Roof 100 95. A King-Post and Finial 100 96. Laying out a Curvilinear Hip Rafter . . . . .103 97. A Dormer Window 104 98. A Lift Window 104 99. Boarding In ........... 108 100. Scaffold Bracket 109 101. Open Cornice . . 110 102. Box Cornice HI 103. Eaves Troughs or Gutters . . . . . . . . .112 104. Lengthening Moldings . . . . . • • • .113 105. Corner Boards . . . • 114 106. Mitered Clapboards 114 107. Forms of Siding . . .115 108. Flashing over Openings 116 109. Water Table . 117 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. I'AiiR 110. Curved Moldings . ' . . 11H 111. Scarfing a Molding for Bending . ii» 112. Laying out a Rake Molding .... . 119 113. Rake Box Cornice . 120 114. Rake Miter Box . . 121 lir>. Siding a Circular Tower . 122 116. Scribin01 .... 1 23 117. Boarding a Dome Roof ..... . 124 118. Shingling a Roof . 12H 119. Scaffolds for Shingling . 12U 120. Hip Shingling: Methods 1 and 2 . . 131 121. Hip Shingling ; Method 3 .... . 132 122. Valley Shin"ling 133 123. Repairing a Shingled Hoof . 134 124. Shingle Nail Cutter . 134 125. Flashing a Dormer Window .... . 134 120. Skylight Flashing . 135 127. Saddle or Cricket Flashing . 135 128. Counter Flashing . ... . 130 129. Metal Roofs: Standing Seam, Flat Seam 137 130. Lathing an Inside Corner . . 143 131. Lathing a Straight Wall . 144 132. Lathing on a Wide Timlw-r .... . 144 133. Metal Corners . 145 134. Plaster Bead . . 140 135. Grounds for Plastering . . 140 130. Deadening a Floor ; Method 1 . 150 137. Deadening a Partition . 150 138. Deadening a Floor ; Method 2 . 151 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY CHAPTER I MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 1. Building sites. — (A.) In selecting the site for a dwell- ing, the most important considerations are those relating to its hygienic aspects. In order to insure that the flow of the surface water will be away from the house, the latter, if possible, should be located so that the land will fall away from it in all directions. It should not be located near a pool of stagnant water, as malaria and mosquitoes may result ; nor should it be built in a deep grove, as the house is liable to be damp, which, aside from being un- healthful, tends to promote the decay of the building. This does not mean that there should be no trees near the house, but that tbe foliage should not be so thick as to pre- vent plenty of sunlight from reaching the building, or to impede the free circulation of air. (B.) If practicable, the house should be set at an angle to the coldest prevailing winds, so that their full force will not be felt. A clump of pines, or similar trees, will be of great value in breaking the force of the wintry winds. 2. Subsoil. — As the subsoil has a great deal to do with the foundation, it is important to know the nature of the ground upon which the building rests, though it is usually l 2 ,\ xi/:t;\rk\COKSt^JC'fIVE CARPENTRY the architect who decides the depth and form of the foun- dation, and the width of the footing course. If the sub- soil is not known, and a large building is to be erected, the architect generally will sink shafts some distance below the bottom of the proposed foundation, in order to ascer- tain the nature of the soil which is to support the building. Rock makes the most solid foundation bed, but is apt to cause trouble in damp-proofing. The architect and builders should be careful not to mistake a large bowlder for bed rock. Clay, if hard, will usually be found sufficiently firm for any ordinary building, as it will support from \\ to 6 tons per square foot according to its nature. It should, how- ever, be well drained for, if clay lies upon a slanting sub- stratum, it is apt to slip when wet. (See Fig. 5.) Gravel is the ideal soil upon which to build, providing it is compact, as it is not affected by water and very little by frost. It has a resistance of from 4 to 8 tons per square foot and, if the footing courses are properly estimated and the foundation well put in, will stand any load with safety. Sand is useless as a foundation bed, unless it is con- fined laterally, in which case it is about as satisfactory as gravel in its resistance to frost and water, and will safely support from 2 to 4 tons per square foot. If a building is to be erected upon mud or silt, piles should be driven. These are round, straight logs, usually of oak, hard pine, or cypress, though elm and spruce are often used. They should be driven into the ground to the desired depth by means of a pile-driving machine and, if not exposed to alternations of wet and dry, they are practically ever- MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS lasting. Sometimes foundations are laid upon mud by ex- tending the footing course to give a very broad bearing. One of the methods of doing this is to lay plank in several layers, crossing each alternate layer, and building suffi- ciently thick to insure rigidity. This method has been used successfully in building upon marsh lands. Another method is to build a form which is then filled with con- crete. 3. Laying out the foundation. — (A.) In laying out the foundation of a building where the lots are platted and the streets laid out, the front of the house generally should be parallel to the side of the lot which fronts the principal street. If the lots are narrow and the dividing lines ex- tend at an angle with the front, the house is usually set parallel with the line separating the lots, thus bringing the front at an angle with the street, but square with the dividing line, as in Fig. 1, which shows a dwelling house located upon an irregularly shaped corner lot. In this way the waste of land is reduced to a minimum. In places where there are building laws, the minimum distance at which the house may be set from the front of the lot usually is regulated, but in any case, it adds to the good appearance of a street to have the fronts of all of the houses upon the same line, and any- thing which improves the appearance of a neighborhood generally will increase the value of the property there. FIG. 1. — LOCATION OF A HOUSE UPON AN IRREGULARLY SHAPED LOT. 4 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY (B.) Having located the line of the front of the house (ab, Fig. 1), decide upon- the relation of the corner c to the nearest side of the lot. With cd as basis, lay out the greatest rectangle possible to obtain from the plan of the house, as shown by the corners c, d, e, f. In order to obtain the exact corners of the rectangle, it is necessary to stretch lines, the intersections of which will mark the corners c, d, e, f. That these lines may be stretched perrilenently and accurately, batter boards (see FIG. 2. — LAYING OUT THE FOUNDATION. Glossary) should be erected as shown in Fig. 2, not less than five feet from the sides of the house at the corners which the approximate measurements have located. Three forms of batter boards are shown, the form at c and e being generally used, as it is more rigid than the others. After the line of the front of the house cd is located, the line gh should be stretched by means of a piece of strong, small cord about two feet longer th^in the dis- tance between the batter boards, dropped into the saw cuts which have been made at exactly the right places to locate the line permanently. Tie a stone at each end MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS of the cord to keep it stretched tightly, and to allow it to be removed easily. Locate saw cut i in the front batter board at a distance equal to that of the side of the lot from the side of the house, and throw one end of the cord m over the rear batter board, each end of the cord being weighted with a stone. The saw cut should not be made in the rear batter board at this time, as the cord may have to be moved when squar- ing though, if the front line is accurately 'located, m will be parallel to the side of the lot. Measure from the cut iy parallel with the line cd, the exact length of the founda- tion of the front of the house (cd) , and make saw cut j in the other front batter board ; from this another line jn should be stretched to the corresponding rear batter board, and weighted. Paral- lel to gh, line kl should be stretched to locate the back of the foundation, saw cuts having been made so that the line may be dropped instantly into its place at either end. It now remains only to make lines im and jn paral- lel to each other and square with gh and kl. This may be done by laying a square (see Fig. 3) upon the ground as at c, so that the tongue and line gh will exactly coincide, and by bringing line im to coincide with the blade of the square. Measure across the back and make line jn parallel with im. FIG. 3. — LARGE SQUARE FOR LAYING OUT FOUNDATIONS. 6 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY If the work has been done with accuracy, the inter- sections of the lines at c, d, e, f will denote the corresponding corners of the building ; but as it is most important that the building be perfectly square, the work should be proved by measuring the diagonals (c'/', d'e') between the intersections of the lines : if they are equal, they are the corners of a perfect rectangle ; if not, move the two points m and n simultaneously in the same direction, until the diagonals are exactly the same length. Having accurately located points m and n, make saw cuts in the batter boards to receive the lines, which may then be removed and replaced as often as necessary. Many carpenters doing the above work use, instead of a steel square, a large square, made like Fig. 3. After the great rectangle is located, the smaller angles and projections in the foundation may be placed by measuring. It is quite a common custom for the mason and the carpenter to lay out the foundation in the presence of the architect ; if a large and important building is being laid out, it is a wise plan to call in the services of an en- gineer to insure accuracy, and to locate points from which levels may be taken. 4. Excavations. - - The excavation should be enough larger than the foundation walls at the bottom to allow the footing course to project beyond them and to include, if necessary, a drain to prevent the water in the ground from running into the cellar. Since every inch added to the excavation means that a great deal more earth will have to be removed, this needs careful thought. The sides of the excavation should slope enough to insure that there will be no caving in of the bank. MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS Finally, the footing course should be far enough from the surface to be several inches below the deepest frost line, and, to insure that the foundations of large build- ings will never be thrown out of shape by the action of frost or water, the course should rest still deeper. 5. Ledges. — A ledge never should be allowed to run through the cellar wall, as water will seep into the cellar through minute crevices in the rock ; it should always be cut off, and the cellar wall built inside of it, as shown in Fig. 4. An open tile drain should be laid below the level of the cellar floor to carry away the water in the ground, as shown at a. This drain should be connected with the sewer by a trap outside the foundation wall, or if in an isolated district where . , i ill FIG. 4. — BUILDING A FOUN- there is no sewer, it should be DATION UPON A LEDQB. carried to the nearest available spot giving sufficient pitch to allow the water to run off. If a ledge comes through the cellar floor, water may enter, as the 'moisture in the ground outside will force its way up through it. To prevent this, the floor should be dug away, and a Portland cement floor laid above it. (See Topic 8.) 6. Footing courses. — Unless the footing course rests upon solid rock or upon clay, it should be considerably wider than the foundation upon each side, and should be made of large flat rocks, which have a good bear- ing upon the earth beneath. If a house is built upon a sidehill, the excavation for the footing course should 8 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY be iii steps, as shown in Fig. 5, to guard against slipping down hill. If the footing course rests partly upon a ledge, the bear- ings upon the earth should be very broad, in order to fur- nish as nearly as possible the same resistance as the ledge. In laying the foundation for an ordinary house, the stones frequently are laid dry, and the mortar pushed into the cracks after the wall is entirely laid. This is called " pointing," and is a cheap way of doing work ; but it is the method followed com- monly in that class of work known as " Jerry building." If the wall is well bonded in lay- ing, this method may FIG. 5. — RUBBLE FOUNDATION, BUILT UPON A HILLSIDE. be satisfactory for a light dwelling house, but it will never be so safe as if the work had been done properly. In constructing the foundation for an important build- ing, each stone should be laid in mortar stiff enough to prevent the weight from forcing all the mortar out from the high places between the stones, and allowing the upper stones to rest directly upon those below them. If this happens, the shrinkage of the mortar in drying will leave the upper stones resting upon points, thereby lessen- ing the stability of the wall. Little dependence should be placed upon stone chips, or ''spalls/' to make a stone rest firmly, as these often work out. Foundations of heavy buildings sometimes are made of twisted bars, or railroad iron, or of I beams laid cross- MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 9 ways in different courses, with concrete worked into all the corners and angles, and thoroughly tamped to form a compact mass. Concrete for work which is to support heavy loads should be made of 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 or 5 parts broken stone. A cheaper grade of cement sometimes will give satisfactory results, though it is never so reliable as a standard and carefully tested brand of Portland cement. 7. Stonework. - - The stonework of a building may be of several different styles of finish, of which we will dis- cuss only those in most common use. Rubblework is the name applied to rough unhewn stones laid as they may fit each other best. A bond stone should run through the wall about every 5 square feet. Underground foundations of this type are frequently laid. (See Fig. 5.) Ashlar is the term applied to all stonework which has a finished face. Oftentimes a veneer of ashlar is used as a facing for a rough wall of either stone or brick, and is held in place by bond irons, ..-„.„.,, |r-^ or by faced bond stones which are built into the wall at fre- quent intervals. Coursed ashlar is the term applied to work formed by stones laid as shown in Fig. 6. The horizontal or bed joints are unbroken except at the openings. Broken ashlar is the term applied to stonework laid as in Fig. 7. A draft is a line cut around the face of a stone as in FIG. 6. — COURSED ASHLAR. 10 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY Fig. 6, the face being first pitched off so that it is square with the bed. Pitchy or rock face, means that the face is cut to a line, or " pitched " square with the bed of the stone and out of wind, leaving the rest of the face as it came from the quarry, or " quarry faced." If a strati- fied stone is used, such as lime- stone, it should be laid upon its FIG. 7. — BROKEN ASHLAR. i i i r i natural bed, for when the stone is exposed to the weather, it absorbs a great deal of moisture, and if the bed is laid vertically, freezing will cause the layers to scale off. 8. Damp proofing. — Dampness in a cellar may be due to different causes ; generally the safest way to insure a reasonably dry cellar is to drain it from the outside, thereby preventing the water from soaking through the foundation. This may be done by laying drains of open- joint tiling outside of the cellar wall, as at a, Fig. 4, the bottom of the tiling being at least 6 inches lower than the level of the cellar floor at the highest place in the drain, with the pitch toward the outlet of at least 3 inches to every 50 feet in its length, and by connecting them with the sewer by a trap outside of the cellar wall, to prevent sewer gas from entering the house by way of the drain tile. The tiling or drain pipe should be laid straight upon a carefully prepared bottom, with no low places in it where sediment may collect and thereby impair the efficiency of the drain. Above the drain, to about two feet or less from the grade line, the trench outside of the foundation wall MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 11 should be filled with broken stone or coarse gravel, as at 6, Fig. 4, which allows the water in the ground and the surface water to go directly to the bottom of the trench and into the drain, thus preventing the water with which the earth is filled from standing against the wall of the cellar during a long wet spell. In order to assist the wall to resist the dampness, Portland cement should be plas- tered upon the outside, as at a, Fig. 8. All places which would catch water and conduct it into the wall, as at 6, should be carefully cemented, so that the water will be carried away. It is a good plan to give the outside of the walls a thick coat of asphalt pitch underground, as at c, directly upon the stone, or cement if that is used. Either of these methods of waterproofing will be satis- factory if well done, and, in very wet locations, both are sometimes used, the asphalt being outside of the cement. In constructing any kind of building in a damp location, it is wise to take all possible precautions against dampness entering the basement. The top of the footing course should be well covered with a thick coating of asphalt as at d, Fig. 8; a piece of asphalt paper should be pressed into all the inequalities, and allowed to project several inches into the cellar, as at e, to connect with the asphalt which is to make the cellar floor waterproof. After this another coat of pitch should be added and the as- FIG. 8. — DAMP PROOFING. 12 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY phalt floor spread. The asphalt should be below the level of the cellar floor, and the foundation laid upon it, as usual ; in wet places the foundation should be laid in cement and carefully pointed throughout. If a ledge comes through a cellar floor, as at /, it should be cut down at least six inches below the level of the finished floor and, to obtain the best results, should be covered with at least two inches of dry sand and broken stone well pounded down and leveled off. Over this should be spread evenly about a half inch of asphalt continuous with d. Above this should be laid the concrete floor. If this damp proofing is well done, there is little likelihood that the cellar will be damp from the water in the ground passing through the walls or floor. A cellar often is damp because during the construction proper precautions were not taken to prevent it. In such an event, if it is plain that the water comes through the walls, and since it is considerable expense to lay a drain as at Fig. 8, after the house is built, it will help greatly to dig a trench FIG. 9. — I.VSIDK BUND around the cellar inside of the wall as in Fig. 9, and to lay a tile or blind drain with the pitch as described above, connecting it with the drain outside of the wall by means of a trap. The trench should then be filled with broken stone, and made flush with the cellar floor. If all the moisture comes through the floor, this method will only help; the floor should be cemented as described elsewhere. Another method of keeping the moisture where it be- longs is to cement the cellar floor, and the walls for two or MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 13 three feet from the floor or as high as the surface of the ground. If Portland cement is used, and sufficient venti- lation is provided, this generally gives fair satisfaction, unless the house is in a very damp location. Unless the draining is properly done while the house is being built, it will be difficult to make a perfectly dry cellar. If it is not desirable to go to more expense than that of cementing the floor after the cellar is finished, lay a tapered piece of joist, 3" X 4' ', or 3" X 5", with its bottom at the desired pitch, as close as possible to the inside of the cellar wall, and cement around it, as in Fig. 10. After the cement is set the joist may be removed, leaving a trench or open drain around the cellar, which, if connected with the drain outside, will carry off any water coming in during a long rain. Any con- nection of this sort with the sewer should FlG- 10- - - INSIDE be made with a trap, to prevent sewer gas from coming into the house. Neither of these inside drains is recommended except as a makeshift, as they will only carry off the water, and will not prevent the cellar, on account of the wet walls and floor, from being very damp. 9. Brickwork. — Brick in common use has far greater resistance to fire than has stone and is for that reason, if for no other, better adapted for use in the construction of warehouses, common buildings, chimneys, and for many other purposes in building and engineering work. Brick is used more than any other building material, except wood, though it appears that concrete sometime will take first place. For a better grade of work face brick 14 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY is used, but while it is much finer in appearance, it does not stand fire, being speedily destroyed if exposed to a great heat. It is made in innumerable designs, and in a great variety of colors, and is principally used for the face walls of buildings, and for decorative purposes in the interiors of large rooms, armories, libraries, etc., where the effect of a brick wall is appropriate. Fire brick should be used where great heat is to be resisted. A good brick for general use should give a clear, ringing sound if struck with a hammer, and if soaked for twelve hours should not absorb more than 10 per cent of its weight in water. In laying brick the joints should be level and plumb, and not more than ^" thick. Upon the best work, it is the custom to make a shove joint, that is, the brick is bedded in mortar, and shoved against the one next to it, thus filling the vertical joint ; upon common work, the brick simply is bedded, and the plumb joints partly filled with the cleanings from the outside of the wall and with mortar from the bedding of the next course. Mortar for brick laying should be mixed in the pro- portions of one of lime to three of sand, though this will vary according to the strength of the lime. In building thick walls, piers, etc., grouting is some- times done ; this consists in laying the outside walls in mortar or cement, the inside being filled with " bats " or pieces of brick, and in pouring in after every second or third layer a thin mixture of mortar or cement over the inside courses. If the bricks are thoroughly wet before laying, and if the work is done well, satisfactory results may be obtained, though otherwise this method is worthless. MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 15 Bricks should be sorted for colors in fine work, and the poorer colors and quality used where they will be less conspicuous. Decorative effects are often obtained by laying the different colors in surface design. If bricks are laid in very dry weather, they should be thoroughly wet before laying, for if laid dry, they absorb the moisture of the mortar before it has time to set. It is not wise to lay brick in very cold weather, for if the mortar freezes the work will be worthless. It is some- times necessary to lay brick in winter, in which case everything should be heated, and the walls should be kept covered, to hold the heat as long as possible, so that the mortar may set before it freezes. This is sometimes sat- isfactory, but the result is always doubtful. 10. Bonding. — (A.) Bonding is the term applied to the method of laying bricks by which the inside and out- side walls are fastened together and at the corners to strengthen them. Bricks which are laid with their ends to the face of the wall are called headers, and those showing their edges are called stretchers. The English bond, Fig. 11, consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, and is the strongest bond, though rarely used in this country except upon engineering works and im- portant buildings. The bond commonly used is known as the garden, rV 3 P-I ~i i y- -'T j~SJ » 1 — Lpl — I T±T i i i y ' > 1 ~r I i£ J- J_I^J T Sr- j ii 7 j J (.. 1 i j U, 5 .1 — i_jj -r FIG. 11. — ENGLISH BOND. FIG. 12. — AMERICAN BOND. 16 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY American, or running bond (Fig. 12), which is made by lay- ing from five to seven courses of stretchers between the courses of headers. There are many forms of patent metal bonds, which are used to hold walls together, especially a face wall upon which it is desirable that no headers shall show. (B.) A brick veneered build- ing is one having a layer of bricks laid outside of a strongly braced wooden frame, which is boarded in to make it as rigid as possible and to which the veneer is fastened by means of an iron bond as shown in Fig. 13. This form of construction has many advantages and is increasing in use. ii. Anchors. — Anchoring is the method of fastening brick walls to prevent them from falling outward. One method is shown in Fig. 14, in which the floor joists. are splayed or cut as illustrated, to allow the floor to fall in case of a fire, so that the wall will not be pulled over. The anchor a is fastened, as indicated, upon the side near the bottom edge of the floor joist which will split and release the anchor should the floor fall. The wall plate shown in Fig. 15 is FIG. 13. — BRICK VENEERING. FIG. 14. — STRAP . AN- FIG. 15. — PLATE ANCHOR. MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 17 FIG. 16. — LINTELS AND ROWLOCK ARCHES. an efficient and simple way of anchoring a wall, the timbers easily freeing themselves in case of fire. Anchor bolts frequently are run through the building from one side to the other and screwed up on the outside. This gives great strength, but in case of fire, the walls probably will be pulled over, allowing the fire to spread. 12. Openings. — Unless the tops or openings in a brick wall are well arched, or have a stone, metal, or wood lintel showing c in the face of the wall, they should have a beam of steel, or of thoroughly seasoned wood, to support the wall above, rest- ing at least 4 inches upon the wall at each side of the opening, and visible only from the back or inside of the wall. A double rowlock, or relieving arch, should be laid above the beam or lintel, showing upon the inside of the wall, as illustrated in Fig. 16 at a, or b. An anchor should be placed to. resist the thrust of the rowlock arch as shown at c. 13. Corbelling. — Corbelling (Fig. 17) gives a better support for timbers to rest upon. This often is made a place of deco- ration, or part of a cornice, or the base of the spring of an arch. 14. Brick walls. — (A.) Brick walls vary in thickness in accordance with the requirements in different cities, FIG. 17. — COB- BELLING. 18 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY but in general the thickness of the first story of the ordi- nary three-story dwelling is the width of three bricks or 13 inches, and the width of two bricks for the stories above, the foundation walls being from 4 to 8 inches thicker. (B.) Upon the top of a brick wall, a wooden plate should be fastened by means of bolts extending down into the brick wall about three feet, to give a place to which the rafters may be secured, as shown in Fig. 18, and to strengthen the top of the wall. (C.) Wooden bricks are pieces of sea- soned wood made the size of a brick, but a little larger in the back than in the face, so that they will not pull out easily, and set in the wall at the proper places, to give a nailing for the finish and for the partitions. (D.) A solid outside wall less than 16 inches thick should never be plastered directly upon the inside, as a long driving rain will soak through. A better way is to fur the inside with 1" strips and to proceed as if upon a stud partition, though the insurance men generally object to this method. ' In consideration of their opinion, it is a good plan to nail a horizontal piece at the top and the bottom and every few feet between, to prevent the circulation of air, though this to some extent destroys the efficiency of the air space, as ventilation is checked. A ventilated wall, or a wall so constructed that there are continuous air spaces in it, will prevent the moisture from FIG. 18. — WOODEN PLATE FOR THE TOP OF A BHICK WALL. MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 19 coming through ; it is warm in winter, cool in summer, and light in weight, but as it is an expensive wall to build properly, it is not used so much as it should be. Painting the outside of a brick wall is a fairly efficient method of preventing the rain from finding its way through, and in case poor bricks are used, as is common in some parts of the country, the wall should be painted. From an artistic standpoint, a painted brick wall is decidedly objectionable, as the texture of the bricks, and their soft color effects, are thereby destroyed. (E.) If the inside of a building is to be plastered, the brick wall should be laid roughly, and the joints should have no more mortar in them than is necessary to give the wall stability, as the open joints will help the plaster to take firm hold of the bricks. 15. Chimneys. — Chimneys should extend above ad- jacent ridges to avoid a down draft. One or two bricks should be left out at the bottom of the flue, to allow it to be cleaned easily and the hole should be fitted with an iron cover. If the chimney is more than three stories high, and if the best results are wanted, its walls should be double thick for a third of its height, as the smoke is kept warmer, thereby assisting the draft. For this reason, a chimney in the center of a house is more apt to draw better than one which is a part of the outside wall. A round chimney usually draws better than a square one. The flues of a chimney should be no larger than necessary, as the smoke cools, thereby decreasing its tendency to .rise. A chimney should not be plastered inside, though it is the custom in some localities. Experience has shown 20 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY that the mortar will drop off as the chimney expands and contracts, often taking the pointing from between the bricks with it ; this fact is so well established, that a chimney plastered in this way will be condemned in most large cities. 16. The carpenter and the mason. --In erecting a brick building, the carpenter should have the window and door frames ready to set when the mason is ready for them, and should assist in setting them. He also should see that they are properly stayed, and held in their places until the mason has built around them enough to hold them firmly. Floor joists, wooden brick, and all other woodwork fur- nished by the carpenter should be ready to set when the mason is ready for them. Usually it is not the carpenter's place to furnish centers for arches, -or to erect scaffolds for masons, though the customs in regard to these points vary in different localities. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 1. What should be considered first in selecting the location of a dwelling? How should the land lie in relation to the house? Should a house be located near a pool of stagnant water ? What are the ob- jections to building a house in a deep grove? Are there any objections to a few shade trees? 2. How should the subsoil be investigated ? Who usually does this? What mistake is sometimes made in building upon rock? What load will clay support generally? How may a clayey subsoil upon the side of a hill be made safe ? What is the best soil upon which to build? Why? What is its resistance? How should sand be treated to prepare it for supporting a building? Compare sand with gravel. Describe piling. 3. With which side of a lot should the front of the house generally MASONRY, FOUNDATIONS 21 bo parallel? How should a house be located upon an irregularly shaped lot ? What is the effect upon the property of a neighborhood, if the houses are arranged with no thought of regularity? What is the general shape to be located first in staking out a building ? De- scribe the method of doing this. How can the accuracy of the work be proved? 4. What regulates the size of the excavation at the bottom ? Should the sides of the excavation generally be plumb ? What should be the relation of the frost line to the footing course ? 5. Should a ledge be allowed to extend through the cellar wall? Why? How should a ledge be dealt with? 6. Should the footing course generally be as wide as the foundation ? How should a footing course be laid upon a side hill? Should stones rest directly upon each other? Why? Should stone chips be de- pended upon to make a strong wall ? How are cheap foundations laid ? Is it a safe plan? How should the footing courses be laid, if a wall rests upon both sand and bedrock? How are the footing courses of heavy buildings sometimes put in? 7. What is meant by rubble work ? How should it be bonded ? What is meant by ashlar? coursed ashlar? broken ashlar? draft line? pitch, or rock face ? How should stratified stones be laid ? Why ? 8. What is the safest way to insure a dry cellar ? What is the least pitch a drain should have ? How should the outside of the wall be treated? How should the top of the footing course be treated? If a ledge comes through the cellar floor, how should it be treated ? How may a cellar floor be drained after the house is built ? 9. Why are bricks better for general building purposes than stone ? Compare common and face bricks. What kind of bricks should be used where a great heat is to be resisted ? How should a brick be tested ? Describe the usual methods of laying brick. What should be the proportions of lime and sand in mixing mortar ? Describe grout- ing. Give the reasons for sorting bricks. How should bricks be treated in dry weather before laying ? Is it a good plan to lay brick in very cold weather ? How may it be done ? 10. What is meant by bonding? What is a header? a stretcher? Describe the English bond ; the American bond ; a metal bond ; a veneered wall. 22 CONSTRUCTIVE CABPENTRY 11. What is meant by anchoring a building? What is meant b}' a splayed floor timber? Why should an anchor easily detach itself from the wall? 12. How should the tops of openings be treated? 13. What is corbelling? 14. What is the usual thickness of the brick wall of a dwelling house ? How should the tops of the walls be treated ? Why ? De- scribe a wooden brick. Why not plaster a thin wall directly upon the inside? How should it be done? Describe a ventilated wall. Is it best to paint a brick wall? How should bricks be laid in a wall which is to be plastered ? 15. How should the height of a chimney compare with that of adjacent ridges? Should a high chimney be of the same thickness throughout? Why ? Which is the better location for a chimney, in the center, or in the outside wall of the house? Should a chimney be plastered on the inside? 16. How should the carpenter assist the mason? CHAPTER II FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 17. The full frame. — Fig. 19 illustrates the joint form- ing the basis of construction of the heavier members of a full frame house (Fig. 20) in which every joint is a mortise and tenon joint, a pin being driven through the hole (c, d of Fig. 19), drawing the tenoned timber to its place. Floor joists, studs, tail beams, headers, etc., are mortised and tenoned; in fact, the best work of this form of construction is done without the use of nails, except for rafters and in spiking floor joists and small pieces to their places. This is the old-fashioned way of framing, and until about 1850 was the method commonly used. A frame of this sort is rarely built now, as the heaviest buildings are of steel, or of the form known as the mill, or slow-burning, construc- tion. 18. The half frame. --The combination, or half frame, a combination of the full and balloon frames, is quite generally used in the best class of dwellings, and other light frame buildings. It follows the full frame as far as fhe 23 FIG. 19. — MORTISED DKAWBORED. JOINT, I FIG. 20. — FULL FRAME HOUSE. a, sill ; b, corner post ; c, brace ; d, stud ; e, head ; /, stool ; g, plate ; h, floor joists ; A:, common rafters; »i, ja^k rafters; n, hip rafters; o, double studs; p, mortised joint; r, open mortised joint ; s, mortised joint, dnuvbored ; /, end of rafters for box cornice ; w, raised or flush nirts; *, sunk or dropped girts. 24 FIG. 21. — BALLOON FRAME. ribband, or ledger; b, wall bridging; c, 1|" balloon brace; d, 2" x 4" balloon brace; e, sawed lookouts spiked to the rafter ; /, brick noggin. 25 26 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY posts, girts, and often the braces are concerned, though the last are frequently of the balloon type, and only spiked. In the best frames of this type, the studs are mortised and tenoned at the top, and nailed at the bottom, though ordinarily they are nailed at both ends. 19. The balloon frame. - - The balloon frame (Fig. 21) is built by spiking or nailing all timbers together, and is the cheapest form of construction for a frame house. The studs are usually continuous from the sill to the plate, on the sides of the house, except at the openings, and in the gables to the rafters, if pieces of the right length can be secured, otherwise they are usually pieced by means of a fished joint. The ribband, or ledger board (a), is cut into them to sup- port the floor joists of the second floor. The braces usually extend from the second or third stud • on the sill to about 2' 6" from the plate on the corner posts, though they are sometimes not extended above the second floor. Braces are frequently made of 1" or 1J" stock, being let into the studding flush with the outside of the wall, as at c. The better method is to use a 2" X 4", as shown at d. It is characteristic of this form of construc- tion to use only the lightest timbers, and, unlike the full and half frames, to build one piece at a time. A balloon frame is a fire trap unless bridged by pieces of scantling (6), which are put between the studs to pre- vent the circulation of air, thereby reducing the danger from fire. Bridging also makes it difficult for vermin to pass from one story to another, and adds much to the warmth and stiffness of the house. It is a good plan to fill in between the floor joists upon the sills with a brick FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 27 nogging (/), which assists the fire and vermin-resisting qualities of the building. In the full and combination frames this protection is formed by the solid girts. A well-built balloon frame is satisfactory for a moderate- sized house, but since it invites poor work and a certain class of builders cannot resist such a temptation, this form of construction has a worse reputation than it deserves. In many cities a balloon frame is not accepted within the fire limits, though a half frame usually will be accepted wherever a wooden building is allowed. 20. Sills. — In framing the sills of a house the corner joints usually are made by being halved together as at a, 6 FIG. 22. — FRAMING OF SILLS AT THE CORNERS. Fig. 22. The sills of a heavy building are frequently fitted together by an open mortised joint, as at 6, Fig. 22. If the sills are built up and spiked together, they should be crossed at the corners as at c, Fig. 22. Large straight tim- bers are difficult to obtain in long lengths, and are there- fore often built up of others of smaller dimensions. Tim- bers built up in this way have about 75 per cent of the strength of solid timbers of the same size. If the pieces are sprung, or crooked, they often may be straightened by nail- ing pieces together which are sprung in opposite directions, one piece straightening the other. In a cheap building, the sills sometimes are fitted against each other with a square butt joint, depending upon the boarding and the 28 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY finish to hold them together. This is bad construction, and never should be used by a carpenter who values his reputation. The girders, which extend across the house to support the floor joists and the partitions, are made uniform in size with the sills, and the floor joists are cut to fit them by the same method as at the sills. 21. Corner posts. — The corner posts of a full or of a half frame house are framed at the girts by a mortise and tenon joint, the tops of the raised girts being flush with the floor joists, as at w, Fig. 20 ; and, in order to prevent cutting away the post too much at one place, and to allow a longer tenon upon each girt, the sunk or dropped girts are placed low enough to allow the floor joists to rest upon their tops, as shown at z, in Fig. 20. The girts sometimes are cut into the corner post with a beveled shoulder, as shown in Fig. 23, to prevent the entire weight of the girt from resting upon the tenon, though this is not usually done upon ordinary work. In a full or a half frame house, the tim- bers are often weakened by the mortises cut in them, unless stirrup irons are used to sup- port the joists, which would otherwise be FI«J. 23. — BKV- tenoned into headers or girts. Other tim- bers which are usually supported by mortise and tenon joints may be supported in the same way, though a mortise cut in the middle of the depth of a timber affects it less than if cut upon one edge or corner. The joints between the corner posts and sills of all frame 01 LI>KU FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 29 FIG. 25. — BUILT POSTS. CORNEU FIG. 24. — JOINT BE- TWEEN CORNER POST AND SILLS. buildings usually are made as shown in Fig. 24, though frequently they are spiked in the cheaper balloon frames. Corner posts may be built by one of the methods shown in Fig. 25. The ribband pieces, or ledger boards, which support the floor joists above the first floor, are cut into the studs and corner posts. The depth of the cut is gauged from the outside of the stud, as shown in Fig. 26, in order that the shoulders or notches of the floor joists may all be cut the same length and that no variation may show upon the outside of the building. 22. Braces. — In making the cuts, and finding the lengths oj braces shown in Figs. 20 and 21, the steel square is used. All measure- ments generally are worked out upon the scale of 1" to 1'. The square most conven- iently marked for the use of the framer is divided on the out- side into twelfths of an inch. This division may be used easily in working to an inch scale, each inch being read as one foot. In using the steel or framing square, the tongue or short side should be held in the left hand, and the blade or long FIG. 26.— LEDGER BOARD, OR RIB- BAND. FIG. 27. — POSITION OF THE FRAMING SQUARE IN FINDING THE LENGTH OF A BRACE. 30 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY side in the right, thereby bringing the square into the po- sition shown in Fig. 27. This brings the I" scale upon the outer edge. If the brace is to be of 45 degrees, that is, to extend the same distance on each side of the angle it is to strengthen, say 48", find upon the tongue of the square the figures 48 .£ 67.88, the two equal figures giving the distance from the angle, and the other giving the length of the brace, or its hypothenuse. If for any angle other than one of 45 degrees, take the distance from the corner to the brace, say 4', upon the tongue of the square, and the other distance, say 12', upon the blade; as we are working to the inch scale, this means that the meas- urements to be used are 4" and 12", as in Fig. 27. By marking along the two edges of the square, we have the angles of the cuts, 4" giving the horizontal cut and 12" the vertical. To find the length of the brace, measure Fio. 28. — BEVELED SHOI-LDKK Bu.v< E across the angle from 4" to 12", the distance given as inches being read as feet. The accuracy of the result depends entirely upon the accuracy with which the work has been done. To find beveled shoulder cuts, as shown in Fig. 28, find and mark the length and angles of the brace, as if it had FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 31 no shoulder, by the method above described, and make the mark upon the brace denoting the length as shown at ad. Lay the square with the size of the shoulder, (de, or a/), say 1" ', upon the tongue, at point a or d, and bring the square around until the blade coincides with point b or c. Connect e with d and with c ; f with a and with b. These lines denote the cuts of the shoulders at each end. The entire length of the brace, including the tenons, should be from / to e. The ends of the tenons, (g, #), will allow sufficient wood for drawboring. Upon common work, the joints of the brace usually are cut to the lines ab and cd, and the joint firmly spiked. To cut the post, and the sill plate, or girt for the brace, or the horizontal and vertical members to be braced, meas- ure from the corner /i, to points a and d, and from them mark points 6, c, and lay off lines a/, fb, de, and ce, by the same method used in obtaining the corresponding lines upon the ends of the brace. The length of the brace is al- ways between the points a and d. 23. Floor joists. - - The methods of resting the floor joists upon the sills and girders are shown in Fig. 29 : a is the method fre- quently used upon cheap buildings; fr, upon the best class of buildings ; and c illustrates a method sometimes used where it is necessary to avoid the height above the sill at a, and wher.e it is not desirable to take the time to cut mortises. The joists need be no longer than to reach the stud, as at d, though if they extend to the Q pIG 29. — SIZIXG FLOOR JOISTS, TO FIT SILLS AND GIRDERS. 32 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY outside of the stud, they may be spiked to the side of each stud they come against, thus giving additional strength. As there is so much difference in the size of timbers, it is necessary, in order to make the floor joists line up straight on top, always to size the floor joists to 1" narrower than the timber, as shown in Fig. 29. This sizing should be done from the top edge of the joist, which in every case should be the crowning or rounding edge, so that when the floor is loaded, the deflection will tend to straighten the joists. A floor joist should be nailed against the outside wall, to give a nailing for the floor boards and the ceiling laths. Two floor joists, with a 2" space between them, should be placed under the partitions, or a double floor joist may be used instead, if a piece of 1" X 3" is nailed to each side of it, to give a nailing for the flooring and the ceiling laths. Floor joists in almost every case should be placed 16" to centers. As laths are cut 48" long, this distance gives four nailings to each lath and makes cutting unnecessary. If the space to be filled is not a multiple of 16", the varia- tion should all come at one side of the room, so that the laths will not have to be cut more than necessary. In heavy work the floor joists are often placed 12" to centers. If floor beams are used as trimmers, to carry the header of a flight of stairs, they should be doubled, unless otherwise supported. Headers and trimmers carrying but one or two tail beams will do if a single thickness is used. If a floor joist is sprung sideways, it must be held straight by " battens " or bridging until the flooring is nailed, or there will be enough deflection when the weight is placed upon it to crack the plastering of the ceiling below. FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 33 Floor joists over 12' in length should have, in the center, a row of bridging (see Fig. 30),. which imparts sufficient stiffness to require three times the load to cause the same deflection as without, and which insures that the joists will never buckle. Rows of bridging should not be more than 8' apart ; for a small house 1" X 3" material will generally answer, but for a large building, nothing less than a 1" X 3" should be used. To make bridging, it is the usual custom to saw one end of a long piece at the correct angle, and place it as shown at a, or the height of the beveled end above the bottom edge of the floor joist. With a cutting-off saw, cut the other end of the bridging, carrying the saw by the side of the floor joist as at b. This cuts the piece to the desired length and angle with- out any further measuring, or the use of any other tool, and at the same time gives the angle for the lower end of the next piece. Some workmen have a miter box with a bridging cut made in it, and saw the bridging for an entire floor before nailing. The uneven spaces will have to be cut separately. 24. Studding. - - The studs of a house are generally spaced 16" between centers, in order to accommodate the laths, which are 4' long. It is always best to use stuff which has been run through a planer and sized down to an FIG. 30. — BRIDGING. 34 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY even width, as time will be saved in straightening up the partition, and a much better job of plastering can be made than if it depended upon the plasterer to make a straight wall. The best constructive practice is to bring the partitions directly over one another as much as possible, as in Fig. 31, supporting the upper by the lower, with a scantling plate between the two to prevent the passage of fire and vermin, and to support the floor joists. This method of putting in the partitions minimizes the danger of plaster cracks in the cor- ners, as the parti- tions of both floors are supported by the girt of the lower floor, thus making the shrinkage of the house practically the same in the partitions and outside walls. If a house is built by laying a floor and constructing the partitions upon it, there will always be cracks in the plastering, as soon as the building seasons. This method has nothing to recommend it but its inexpensiveness, and is used only upon the cheapest class of houses, except as it is the method by which a closet or other unim- portant partition is built. In setting a partition, care must be used that the studs are set upon a straight line, with straight, double studs at the openings and angles. If a stud is so crooked that the Fio. 31. — PARTITIONS. FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 35 n laths and plaster will not cover the defect, say, over J" in the height of the partition, straighten it by making a saw cut in the the concave edge, and driving in a wedge as shown in Fig. 32. Nail a fishplate upon one side of the stud to give stiffness as indicated. A scantling which is badly sprung should be cut for headers and other short pieces, unless it is to be used in a place where it can be spiked straight. Partitions should be bridged as at b, Fig. 21, for the reasons discussed in Topic 19. This is rarely done upon cheap balloon buildings, and it is this, more than anything else, which has won for this type of building the name of " fire trap." Unless necessary for stiffening, this bridging is often omitted in building a full or half frame house, as the solid girts close the fluelike spaces between the studs. 25. Porch construction. - - The floor joists of a porch should run parallel with the house (see Fig. 33), as the floor boards should be laid square with the front, and should pitch 1" in 5' in order to allow water to run off easily. Porch floor boards should be not over 4" wide, and should be laid open about \" to assist in ventilating underneath the porch. This is not always done. Laying a porch floor in this way has its disadvantages and, if the porch is well ventilated otherwise, it will be un- necessary. A tight-jointed porch floor should be laid of well-seasoned matched boards, and the joints well leaded before laying. FIG. 32. — STRAIGHTEN- ING A CROOKED STUD. 36 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY It is a good plan to leave the porch open underneath, but if it is to be boxed up, lattice work should be used or open-jointed boards laid in order to allow a free cir- culation of air, the most effective preventive of decay. In general the porch floor should be one step lower than the floor of the house, espe- cially in northern climates, as it will, to a great ex- tent, prevent snow from driving un- der the door, or piling up against it. This also gives more height to the porch, or more pitch to the roof, which is apt to have less pitch than it requires, its rise being limited by the second story windows. The foundation of a porch is liable to be neglected, as it is generally a light structure ; but a careful builder will see that it is well supported below the frost line. FIG. 33. — PORCH CONSTRUCTION. FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 37 The porch roof and floor should be fastened to the build- ing by some method similar to that illustrated in Fig. 33. The height of a porch ceiling ordinarily should not be less than 8'. If it is too low, the roof excludes light from the house ; if too high at the eaves, the roof may have insuffi- cient pitch to allow the water to run off freely. The required details of the cornice and frieze of a porch govern the construction above the columns and at the eaves, but the illustration indicates a common method of constructing a box-finished porch roof. A metal roof should be used if the pitch is less than 5" to a run of 12'. If a flat metal roof is to be walked upon, it should be protected by a movable wooden floor. As the porch usually is the entrance to a house, and a prominent feature, it is more or less embellished. There are many different designs for the details, but where straight rails are used, the work is practically the same. There should always be a wash pitched about 1" in 7" upon the top and bottom rails. The top of the top rail may be about 30" from the floor, but it often is not more than 26". The bottom rails should be placed about 3" above the porch floor, so that water may run under them easily, and sufficient room be left for sweeping. If a ramped rail is used (see r FIG. 34. — RAMPED RAIL. Fig. 34), the joint between a and b should be made very strong ; rail bolts (c) and dowels (d) should be used to insure rigidity. The ramp (a) is made usually of one piece, worked by machine to the same 38 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY molding as the rail. The holes (/) should be plugged up after the rail is together. All joints should be fitted care- fully, and well doped with white lead. FIG. 35. — TRUSSED GIRDER. 26. Trusses. -- It is not within the province of this book to discuss the stresses which a truss is called upon to resist, or to enter upon the engineering problems which are neces- Fio. 36. — GIRDER STIFFENED BY HODS. « sary to be solved in order properly to design a truss ; we will, however, endeavor to say something of the different forms of trusses with which the carpenter has to deal in the FIG. 37. — BUILT TRUSSED GIRDER. ordinary course of his work, and the details of their con- struction. (A.) A trussed girder, or belly rod truss (Fig. 35), is an efficient method of strengthening beams and girders. Fit- ting the rod in the depth of the beam, as in Fig. 36, does not add a great deal to its strength, because if loaded to its FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 39 limit, the beam will generally fail on the upper edge first, the fibers crushing by compression, before the bottom fibers break under the tensile strain. (B.) A satisfactory form of trussed girder is shown in Fig. 37, which may be used in places where it is desirable that as little vertical 771 space be occupied -as \/ ' « t ? J* DOSsible ^IG' ^' — FLITCH PLATE GIRDER. (C.) A flitch plate girder (Fig. 38) is sometimes used where it is desirable that the girder shall be contained in the thickness of the floor. This consists of iron plates bolted FIG. 39. — SCISSORS TRUSS. between floor joists. An iron I beam when available is used generally for this purpose. (D.) The scissors truss (Fig. 39) is used a great deal in the 40 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY construction of churches and other buildings where it is nec- essary to obtain all the height possible at the center. The kingpost (ab) and the tie beam (cd) should be very care- fully planned, as these members are depended upon to hold the truss in shape, and to prevent the building from spreading at the eaves. This truss may be built of small timbers; if the maximum of strength is desired, an iron plate should be made to extend for a sufficient distance at each side of all the joints and should be securely bolted in place there. (E.) The Howe truss (Fig. 40) is the form generally used FIG. 40. — HOWE hi constructing the roofs of large buildings where there is no middle support, as a truss of this type may be made to support a roof of any pitch. It is in accordance with the best modern practice to build important trusses of steel, as they may be made lighter in appearance and weight. The strength of a steel truss may be estimated more accurately than that of one built of wood, and but slight variation is caused by shrinking. The above forms of trusses are capable of variation in design, but the simple trusses built by the carpenter are usually based upon one of these. Unless the builder has the training to design an economical and efficient truss, he FORMS OF dCONSTRUCTION 41 should not attempt to design one by guesswork, but should engage the services of an engineer. 27. Timbers. - - The sizes of timbers are governed by the needs of the building. The sills of a moderate-sized dwell- ing should be 4" X 6", 6" X 6", or 6" X 8". The plates should be 4" X 4" or 4" X 6", or the same size one way as the width of the studs. The studs should be 2" X 4" for the main partitions and the outside walls, while for cross and minor partitions 2" X 3" studding is sufficient. Stair strings or carriages should be 2" X 10". For lower floor joists from 12' to 14' long, with one row of bridging, material 2" X 10" should be used, though for a light framed house, 2" X 8", if well bridged, is generally sufficient. For spans of over 14', 2" X 12" should be used. Second floor joists should be 2" X 8" or 2" X 10", though the former, with bridging, is generally used in light buildings and for short spans. Rafters, not over 14' long, if well supported by purlins and collar beams, will be satisfactory if made of 2" X 4" material. Rafters longer than 14' should be made of 2" X 5" or 2" X 6", unless very well supported. It is not a good plan to make a roof heavier than it need be, as unnecessary weight adds to the difficulty of keeping the building in shape. Unless the plates are well tied, the house is apt to spread at the eaves, causing great difficulty if there is a room in the attic. Collar beams over 8' long should be made of 2" X 6", though for a light framed house 1" X 6" is often used. 28. Selection of timbers. — The selection of timbers is a matter of great importance in the building of a house. 42 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY None should be used which show any signs of decay, or which have a sour or musty smell, as they will in time, unless in a well-ventilated place, affect all wood with which they come in contact. There should be no large knots nor other defects which weaken the timber to an appreciable extent, and timbers which have the heart in them should not be depended upon to resist heavy strains. This rule generally is followed more closely in small timbers than in those of large dimen- sions, as it is difficult to obtain timbers of large sizes without heart. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 17. Describe the principal features of a full frame. 18. Describe a half or combination frame. 19. Describe a balloon frame. Compare the three types of frames, and the work upon which they are generally used. What is the chief objection to the balloon frame in a crowded locality ? 20. Describe built-up timbers. Compare the efficiency of built and solid timbers. 21. Describe the method of framing the girts into corner posts. What is the objection to cutting mortises into timbers? In which part of the timber does the mortise do the least damage ? In what respect is a balloon frame superior to other forms ? Describe the joints between the corner posts and sills of full, half, and balloon framed buildings. How are ledger boards cut in ? From which side of the studs should the depth of the cut be gauged? Why should the ledger be parallel with the outside of the wall ? 22. Describe the use of the steel square in framing a brace. Demon- strate the marking of a shoulder, and the length of a brace. Demon- strate the method of marking the brace cuts in the corner posts and sills, plates, or girts. Between what points is the length of a brace ? 23. Describe the sizing of a floor joist. Why is it necessary? How are floor joists placed if they support a partition ? How is a nailing for the floor boards and ceiling laths secured ? What is the usual distance FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 43 between the centers of floor joists? How should floor beams which carry headers be treated ? What are floor beams called which extend from a header to the wall ? How should a floor beam which is sprung sideways be straightened? What is the advantage of bridging? 24. What is the usual distance between the centers of studding? Why ? How should studs at angles and openings be set ? How should studding be treated before it is taken to the building ? Why? How can a stud in the partition be straightened? Where should the crookedest pieces be used ? What should be done to the studding of a balloon framed house to prevent continuous air spaces ? What other purposes would this serve? 25. How should the floor joists of a porch run? Should a porch floor be laid perfectly level ? Why ? Describe and compare methods of laying porch floors. Should a porch be boarded up tightly under- neath the floor ? Why ? Should the porch floor be level with the floor of the house ? Why ? Describe the method of fastening a porch to the house. What should be the height of a porch ? Why not more nor less ? What should be the height of a veranda rail ? What is the least rise upon which anything but a metal roof should be used ? How should a metal roof be protected ? 26. Describe a belly rod truss. What is the value of a belly rod fitted in the depth of the girder ? Upon which edge does a timber fail first ? Describe a simple form of trussed girder. Describe a flitch plate girder. Describe a scissors truss, and its advantages. Describe the form and uses of a Howe truss. Why is steel construction supplanting wood for heavy work ? 27. How large should the sills for a moderate-sized dwelling be? the plates? the studs? the stair strings ? the floor joists? the rafters? the collar beams ? 28. What imperfections in timber should cause it to be rejected? What imperfections usually have to be permitted in large timbers? Why? CHAPTER III MILL CONSTRUCTION 29. Introduction. - The type of building known as the slow-burning, or mill construction, recommended by the Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies of Boston, Massachusetts, is used extensively for the con- struction of buildings for manufacturing purposes. Wher- ever reasonable safety from fire is desired at minimum cost, this form of construction is considered the best. (A.) It is a well-established fact, that cast-iron or steel construction, unless thoroughly protected by a fireproof casing, will collapse in time of fire sooner than heavy timbers, as the heat so softens the*metal that it will not sus- tain its own weight, while a heavy timber, perhaps, would not weaken enough to fail before the fire is under control. It is not claimed that this form of construction is fire- proof ; but it is claimed that it does not burn readily, that on account of its peculiarities every opportunity for fire- fighting is given and that a fire, which in an ordinary building might be disastrous, would in one of this type do comparatively little damage. (B.) Prior to the origin of this form of construction, in- surance companies refused to insure, except at prohibitive rates, factories making certain linos of goods; but upon the introduction of this building type by Mr. Edward Atkin- 44 MILL CONSTRUCTION 45 son of Boston, to whose courtesy is due the material for this chapter, it became possible for these buildings to be insured if properly constructed. This type of building is rapidly replacing all others ; especially is this true of cot- ton factories, of which a great many have been built in the Northern States, and through the cotton belt of the South. (C.) Slow-burning construction is used in building moderate-priced factories, warehouses, business blocks, and Eny/netfpom FIG. 41. — FLOOR PLAIT OF A SECTION OF A MILL, SHOWING Two BAYS. dwelling houses because of its simplicity, strength, and the rapidity with which it may be erected, and also because of its adaptability to very fine architecture if the designer uses judgment and skill. 30. Details. — (A.) The details of this form of construc- tion are shown by the three accompanying illustrations. Fig. 41 shows the floor plan of one end of a small factory building, and the horizontal section of the walls and the 46 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY posts. It will be seen that the building can be made of any width or length, and that the posts should be arranged in regular rows, or bays, which may be of any size from 1' to 10' to accommodate the building for which they are in- tended. The bays are generally planned to be between 7' and 9', so that either 14', 16', or 18' lumber may be used ^Sect/on at bb ifechon at cc FIG. 42. — CROSS SECTION OF ABOVE MILL. for the under flooring, in this way allowing each piece to land upon three floor timbers. Fig. 42, a, shows the cross section of Fig. 41 at b b, in which it will be seen that the windows extend above the line upon the wall upon which the floor timbers rest; c c shows the corresponding section of Fig. 41. A pitch in the roof toward the center of the building allows the water to be conducted economically to cisterns, and will, in most localities, furnish a valuable supply of soft water. In case of fire the walls are less liable to be pushed over by the falling in of the roof. MILL CONSTRUCTION 47 Fig. 43 shows the longitudinal section of Fig. 41 at a a. It will be noticed that there are no girders, as the heavy floor plank make them superfluous. The brick work should be corbelled out at a a, to support a piece of 6" X 6" which will furnish a nailing for the ends of the heavy floor timbers. This piece should be anchored to the wall. From the above illustrations it will be seen that the posts extend continuously from the foun- dation to the roof, the floor timbers resting on caps upon the tops of the posts, and the posts above upon the pintles (c) and the bases (d), as shown in Fig. 44, the timbers being anchored to the walls and posts as shown at a and b. Thus the entire building is supported at certain points di- rectly upon the foundation, which therefore does not have to be con- tinuous. (B.) In the old form of construc- tion, the floor joists were placed VI" or 16" on centers, . making it necessary that the walls and foundations should be of equal strength throughout their length, while in the type of building we are dis- cussing, the weight is carried at the places where the large floor beams rest upon the walls, as at d, Fig. 41. This allows the walls to be built with pilasters, strong enough to support the weight, and the spaces between to be filled with brick, or with a metal panel or curtain, which need not be of the same thickness as the pilaster, as it has only its own weight to support. The arrangement Sec/ten cia o/fiy 4/ FIG. 43. — LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF ABOVE MILL. 48 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY of these pilasters offers opportunity for a great variety of designs. (C.) For floor beams and posts, timbers of large dimen- sions should be used : nothing less than 6" X 14" for a 12' span, nor less than 10" X 14" for a 16' span. Posts should in no case be less than 64 sq. in. in section. If a heavy floor timber is needed, 5", 6", 7", and 8" timbers are FIG. 44. — CONSTRUCTION OF ABOVE MILL AT WALL AND POSTS. sometimes bolted together with an air space of f " or \" between them; but 14" is the least depth of floor timber that should be used in .any building of this type, and the student should not forget that a deep timber is much stronger than one nearly square, even if the latter has the considerably larger section. In estimating the sizes of timbers necessary to support a given load in a building of this sort, be sure that the tim- MILL CONSTRUCTION 49 bers are large enough to support the load safely after a third of their strength has been burned away. Posts should not be painted nor in any way kept from the air until they have been thoroughly seasoned, — which may take two or three years from the time the timber was cut, — or dry rot may result. To obtain the best results, an 1J" hole should be bored lengthwise of the column, with a \" venthole at the top and bottom ; this will help to prevent checking, as well as to assist the column in drying out more rapidly. (D.) The heavy under floor which is laid upon the floor timbers should be at least 4" thick and bear upon three of them ; the joints should be broken every few planks. This under floor generally should be tongued and grooved or keyed together, as at e, Fig. 44, upon the top of which are sometimes laid 2" strips, the space between being filled with mortar for giving additional security from fire above, and also for deadening, as sound travels easily in buildings of this type, unless some preventive is used. Upon the 4" under floor is laid a wearing floor, as at /, Fig. 44, or, if the 2" strips are laid as above described, the wearing floor is laid upon them. This floor may be of any kind of wood, generally oak or maple, at least 1J" thick, matched, though f " flooring is sometimes used. The wearing floor usually is laid at right angles with the under floor but, if placed directly upon it, is laid diagonally. Though this is more expensive, it often is preferred, as a better brace is secured, but in no case should the two floors be parallel, as any unevenness, or shrinking will affect them. (E.) One important feature, and a great advantage of 50 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY this type of building, is that about one half of the wall space may be of glass, a factor of great value for manufacturing purposes. The windows usually are extended as high as possible, as at a, Fig. 42, not only for light, but for ventilation, and may in most cases be placed directly under the floor above, between the floor timbers. This is a great improvement over the old form of con- struction, in which the tops of the windows had to be kept down to allow the floor joists to rest upon the wall above them. Mill construction allows the tops of the windows to be about 2' higher than those of other buildings of the same size. (F.) Fire should be retarded in its passage from room to room by tin-covered wooden doors, — sheet metal doors will warp badly in case of fire, — and by partitions of solid wood, which should never be less than 3" in thickness. Brick partitions, or fire walls, should extend above the roof as at 6, Fig. 43. (G.) No holes should be cut through the floors ; the stair- ways, elevators, lavatories, and other closets should be in a part of the building separated from the rest by means of brick walls and fireproof doors. There should be neither inclosed corners nor continuous air spaces to allow fire to be carried from one part of the building to another, and the rooms should be so planned that a stream of water maybe thrown into any part of them. (H.) Belt holes should be avoided as much as possible; the main belts may be carried from the engine room to the main shafts in a brick belt tower, as in Fig. 41, 'the hole in the wall through which the shaft passes being the only hole MILL CONSTRUCTION 51 opening into the main building. In this way a fire may be confined in one place and kept away from the engine room. In the most up-to-date manufactories, the power is trans- mitted by electricity. If the wires are properly installed, this is the ideal way, since there is at least a separate motor for each main shaft or one for each machine. NOTE. — A number of different forms of fire-fighting apparatus, adapted to the protection of these buildings and their contents, have been invented, and an up-to-date building of this sort should be thoroughly equipped with them, but as they are not within the province of this book, they will not be described here. Information regarding them, and a more complete description of mill construction may be obtained from the Inspection Department of the Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, 31 Milk Street, Boston, Mass. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 29. Compare the effect of fire upon unprotected iron or steel, and upon heavy timbers. What is claimed for Mill construction in regard to its fire-resisting qualities ? What were the conditions which led to the invention of this form of construction ? For what kinds of build- ings is Mill construction used ? 30. Describe the chief characteristics of this type of building. What conditions govern the size of the bays ? In what way is it pos- sible to save expense in -laying the foundation of a building of this sort, as compared with that of an ordinary building ? Compare the walls of a building of this type and those of the ordinary type. What is the smallest size of timber which should be used in this sort of building ? Which is the stronger, an 8" X 8" timber, or a 4" X 14" set edgeways ? Should the floor timbers of this type of building be of a size simply to sup- pc|rt the weight in safety ? Why ? Should green posts be painted ? Why ? How long should they be allowed to dry out ? Describe the purpose of boring a hole lengthwise of the column. How should the heavy flooring be laid ? How thick should a floor of this sort be ? How is a floor sometimes deadened ? What should be the thickness of the wearing floor ? How is the top floor generally laid in relation to the 52 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY under Hour? How may it be laid to strengthen the building? Why should it not be laid parallel with the under floor? Compare the possible light area of Mill construction with that of the ordinary build- ing. Why is this possible ? What sort of door should be used in Mill construction? Why is a sheet metal door less serviceable? Where should the elevators, lavatories, etc., be placed? What was said of inclosed corners and continuous air spaces? Why? How should the main belts be carried from the engine room ? What is the object of this? What is the best method of transmitting power? CHAPTER IV THE CARPENTER'S STEEL SQUARE. CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 31. Steel square. — (A.) The blade of the standard steel square (Fig. 45) is 24" long, 2" wide ; the tongue is 14", 16", or 18" long and \\" wide. The widths are so made for the sake of quick and convenient measure : the blade width corresponding to the thickness of most material used in framing an ordinary building, such as rafters, stud- ding, etc., the tongue width corresponding to the size of the common mortise. The edges of the back side of the square are divided into 16ths of an inch upon the outside, and 8ths or 4ths upon the inside. The face side of the square is divided into 12ths of an inch upon the outside edge, and 8ths or 4ths upon the inside. (B.) For our purposes we will consider the side of the square which is used the most by the framer as the face side. In holding the square, take the tongue in the left hand, and the blade in the right, bringing the face of the square up- permost. In this way it is used in doing ordinary work, as the 12ths of an inch upon the outside edge divide each inch into one foot, making a 1" scale. Thus the blade, if used as a scale, is 24' long, and the tongue 14', 16', or 18' long. (C.) Upon the face of the square, as at a, Fig. 45, 'is the board measure, the use of which is very simple and often 53 .r.i.t.i.t.i.-r.i.r 54 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY a great convenience. The figures denoting the width of the board will be found under the figure 12 upon the outside edge, as at 6. Having found the Ho. 45. — THE CARPENTERS &TEEL &QUAKE. width, say 10", follow the line upon which it is located to the figures of the inch division which denotes the length, say 16', as at c ; upon the same line as that upon which the 10" is located the figure 13.4 will be found, which represents the surface measure of a board of the above dimensions. This method is not generally used by carpenters, but accuracy may be obtained in this way without estimating. If a very wide board is to be surveyed, say 22" wide and 16' long, the area may be found by doubling the result of 11" and 16', or 29.4 square feet.1 A rafter measure is sometimes placed on a square instead of the board measure. As this is read by a very simple principle, it will not be discussed here. (D.) The brace measure is found upon the face side of the tongue of the square, and is read by looking for the figures which denote the distance from the corner of the angle to be braced, to the point of intersection of the brace and the two 1 Topic 12, of " Elements of Woodwork" describes and illustrates the use of the lumber scale, which is similar to the board scale, as the same principle applies in the use of each. CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 55 10 10 30 40 JO 60 70 SO 90 sides of the angle, if the angle is a right angle. The use of the brace measure in explained in Chapter II, Topic 22. (E.) The diagonal scale of lOOths of an inch (Fig. 46) is used when it is necessary to work to lOths or lOOtlis of an inch. It is found generally upon the face of the square near the angle, as at /, Fig. 45, though an inch divided into lOOths is often used instead. Many squares do not have either scale, as it is rarely used by the carpenter, because the fractions to which he works are based upon 16ths of an inch. The principle of the diagonal square is not hard to understand, as it is a square inch di- vided into 100 squares. A line connecting a with b divides each line through which it passes FIQ 46 _DIAGONAL ScALE OF 100TH8 into tenths ; thus, if OF AN INCH. 1.57" were desired, the distance from x to y would give it more easily than if the measurement were taken from an inch divided into lOOths, where the divisions are so small that they are difficult to read. 32. Bevel board. — In working out steel square prob- lems, use a planed board, 12" or 15" wide, and about 3' long, which we will call a bevel board. One edge of this board should be jointed perfectly straight and square. In marking, a knife or a very hard, sharp pencil should be used, and the greatest ac- curacy should be continually exercised. As the workman acquires experience, he will be able to dispense almost 56 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY entirely with this board, laying out his work directly upon the material. 33. To mark divisions. — Lay the square upon the board, as shown in Fig. 47. To divide the board into, any number of equal parts, say 10, mark the inch divisions upon the board. By this method a board may FIG. -IT. - DIVIDING A ke divided, using any convenient HOARD INTO EQUAL ,. . . SPACES, divisions upon the square. A rule may be used in the same way. 34. To lay out regular polygons with a steel square. - (A.) Any regular polygon, or any polygon of equal sides and angles, may be inscribed within a circle. Each side of such a polygon forms the base of an imaginary triangle, the apex of which is the center, or axis of the polygon, and the sides of which form the miter of the polygon. See the construction of a hexagon, Fig. 50. Thus each of the five triangles, which constitute a five- 360° sided polygon or pentagon, will have - = 72° in its 5 vertex angle. The angles formed by the base of each triangle, or side of the pentagon with the sides of its triangle, may be found by dividing the vertex angle by two, and subtract- ing the quotient from 90° ; in the case of a pentagon, this angle would be, 90° - = 54°. £i In using a steel square, to lay out a right angle triangle, the student should remember that the sum of the two an- gles with the hypotenuse is always 90°, or the angle of a CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 57 Fi(i. 48. — CONSTRUCTION OF A CIRCLE WITH A STEEL SQUARE. perfect square, because this is the mathematical basis rf nearly all of the work which can be done with the steel square. Thus, if one angle of a right-angled triangle is 40° with its hypotenuse, the other angle will be 50°, and if the blade of the square is at an angle of 30° with the diameter of the semicircle in Fig. 48, the tongue will be at an angle of 60°. If pins were driven at a and b, and the square rotated against them, the angle c would describe the arc of a circle. NOTE. — Hereafter "the tongue" or "on the tongue" will be designated by To., and " the blade " or "on the blade," by Bl. In laying out polygons, the student should construct the geometric figure, extending the base line as in Fig. 50, in order to find the exact figures on To. and on Bl., which will construct the an- gle. Numbers commonly used will be remembered easily. Hold the square as de- scribed in Topic 31, B; keep 12 Bl. upon the base line, and swing the square around until To. exactly coincides with the side of the polygon. (B.) An equilateral triangle (Fig. 49), constructed inth'is way, will give 12 BL, 6^| To. ; To. = outside angle of the sides as at a. The miter of the triangle will be found upon FIG. 49. — CONSTRUCTION OF EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. 58 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY the blade at b. Throughout work of this kind, the number 12 will be almost invariably the blade number, hence the tongue number will be the only one to be kept in mind. NOTE. — The figures given may not he found absolutely correct if calculated mathematically, hut they are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, and adapted to the 1" scale upon the square. (C.) The hexagon may be constructed by joining six equilateral triangles within a circle, the radius of which equals one side of a triangle. The vertex angles of a hexa- 360° gon are — ^— = 60° ; thus the same figures upon the square arc used as for the equilateral triangle, the tongue giving the angle, as at a, Fig. 50. The miter, being the side of an FHJ. 50. — CONSTRUCTION OF A HEXAGON. FIG. 51. — CONSTRUCTION OF A RECTANGLE. equilateral triangle, is found by using the same figures, the tongue giving the miter cut, as at 6. (D.) The sides of a rectangle are square with the base 90° line, or at an angle of 90°, the miter of which, 0- = 45°, CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 59 FIG. 52. — CONSTRUCTION OF AN OCTAGON. may be obtained by using the same figures on both To. and BL, say 12, either side giving the cut. (Fig. 51.) (E.) The octagon, or eight-sided polygon, treated in the same way, gives 12 To., 12 BL, for the outside angle, either side giving the cut. For the miter, 12 Bl.,±{\To.] To. = cut. (See Fig. 52.) The above-mentioned polygons are the ones commonly used by car- penters, though any reg- ular figure may.be con- structed by the same methods. (F.) A bevel set to the figures upon the square which have been found by the above methods will be found more convenient than the square itself in marking cuts and angles, if a number are to be made alike. 35. To bisect an angle. — (Fig. 53.) Measure equal distances on each side of the angle, abc, for points d and e. With the same figure upon each side of the square held to the points d and e, f of the square will indicate the point through -6 which a bisecting line, bg, may be drawn. 36. To find the center of a circle from three given points. - - (Fig. a, 6, c, connect a, b and b, c with FIG. 53. — BISECTING ANGLE. 54.) Given points straight lines. Find exact centers of these lines, and mark them d, and 60 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY e, respectively ; from d and e, at right angles with lines ab and be, construct lines extending in the direction in which they will meet. The point of intersection is the center of a circle which will pass through the given points. FIG. 54. — CONSTRUCTION OF A CIR- CLE FROM THREK GIVEN POINTS. FIG. 55. — CONSTRUCTION OF THE GREATEST POSHIBLE SQUARE WITHIN A GIVEN CIRCLE. 37. To construct the greatest square within a given circle. — (Fig. 55.) Draw the diameter, ab, and place the angle of the square upon the circumference within the circle, moving the square until equal figures upon both Bl. and To. rest upon the diameter at its intersection with the circle. The angle of the square should be marked c upon the circumference ; a line drawn through the center of the circle from c to the other side will give d, or the fourth corner of the square. Connect a, c, b, d, with straight lines. 38. To construct a square. — (A.) J area of a given square. (Fig. 56*.) Given the square abed, lay the framing square upon one side, say ab, with equal figures upon To. and BL, resting upon a and b. Lines drawn along the two edges of the framing square to e will give two sides of a square .] the area of the given square. Locate /by turning the square around. CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 61 (B.) Twice the area of a given square. — (Fig. 57.) The same solution may be applied, by using the diagonal of the given square a b c d, as one side of the desired square. FIG. 56. — CONSTRUCTION OF A SQUARE OF ONE HALF OF THE AREA OF A GIVEN SQUARE. FIG. 57. — CONSTRUCTION OF A SQUARE TWICE THE AREA OF* A GIVEN SQUARE. 39. To construct a circle which shall equal the area of two given circles. — (Fig. 58.) With the diameter of the smaller circle a upon To., and that of the larger circle b upon BL, the bridge measure, c, or the hypotenuse, will equal the diameter of a circle equal to the area of the two given circles. By working circles in pairs, one may be found which will equal any number of circles. 40. To octagon a given timber. - (A.) Method 1. — (Fig. 59.) In the middle of To., upon the back of the FIG. 58. — CONSTRUCTION .„ , e T . « j , OF A CIRCLE EQUAL TO square, will be found a series of dots, THE AREA OF Two GlVEN a-b, forming the octagon scale. CIRCLES, 62 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY 1 a 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 \ NpV\*>A*A»" VA^^KXV^* *»*^w • C ...§.. d ^—-^~ ~—^_ 6 iS b FIG. 59. — To OCTAGON A GIVEN TIMBER. METHOD 1. In using this scale to octagon a 6" X 6" timber for in- stance, a center line is drawn upon one side of the timber and a space equal to six dots of the octagon scale laid off each side of the center line, as indi- cated at c, d. This gives the width of one side of the oc- tagon, and the dis- tance from the corner may then be lined off from the edge of each side, or if preferred, from the center line. (B.) Method 2. — (Fig. 00.; Lay Bl. of the square upon the given timber, as shown in the figure, the angle of the square and the out- side corner of the other end just touch- ing the edges of the sides of the timber ; with a sharp pencil make points at 7 and 17. A line drawn through these points parallel with the edge* will give the corners of the octagon. This process should be repeated upon each side of the FIG. 60. — To OCTAGON A GIVEN TIMBER. METHOD 2. FIG. 61. — To OCTA- GON A GIVEN TIM- BER. METHOD 3. CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY timber or lined off from the corners. A rule may be used in the same way, working from end to end. (C.) Method 3. — (Fig. 61.) Lay a rule upon the tim- ber, as shown in the figure, with the inside points just touching the sides, and upon a line perfectly square with the edge ; mark, 7 and 17, as shown, and proceed as previously described. (D.) Method 4. - - (Fig. 62.) A very common method is to lay out the side of the timber, as shown in the figure, using the corners as cen- ters, and one half of the length of the diagonals as radii of circles. 62. — To OCTAGON A GIVEN TIMBER. METHOD 4. The following problems will be found valuable in laying out the runs of rafters for buildings which are octagonal or hexagonal in shape. 41. Given the side of an octa- gon, to find the width.— (Fig. 63.) Given the side ab of the octa- gon, locate point c by resting equal figures of Bl. and To. upon a and b. Apply Formula 1. W = width of octagon. FORMULA 1. W = ab + 2ac. FIG. 63. — GIVEN THE SIDE OF AN OCTAGON TO FIND THE WIDTH. Another method is to reduce the side of the octagon to an inch scale, and to make two parallel lines upon the bevel board as far apart as the 64 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY length of the given side. Lay the square with the figures 7 and 17 exactly coinciding with the lines. The end of the square d and the angle e will give two points which denote the width of the completed octagon. This is simply reversing the method described under Topic 40, B ; and if the work is done accurately, quite satisfactory results may be ob- tained. 42. Given the side of a hexagon, to find the width. — (Fig. 64.) Lay out an equilateral triangle, upon bevel board, with the base ab, equal to the given side of the hexagon. Apply Formula 2. W = width of hexagon. , FORMULA 2. W = 2 cd. FIG. 64. — GIVEN THE SIDE OF A HEXAGON TO FIND THE WIDTH. 43. Given the side of an octagon, to find the diagonal. — (Fig. 65.) Construct abed. Calculate the width and apply Formula 3. D = diagonal. G = given side. W = width. X = bridge measure. FORMULA 3. D =•- X of G on To. W on Bl 44. Given the side of a hexagon, to find the diagonal. - (Fig. 64.) Apply Formula 4. D = diagonal. G = given side, ab. FORMULA 4. D = 2 G. FIG. 65. — GIVEN THE SIDE OF AN OCTAGON TO FIND THE DIAGONAL. CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 65 45. Given the width of an octagon, to find the length of a side. — (Fig. 63.) Draw two parallel lines as far apart as the width of the octagon, generally using the inch scale. Use the figures 7 and 17, as described in Topic 40, B. Another, and the more com- mon method, is to Construct a square on the given width of the octagon, and work from the diagonals, as described in Topic 40, D. (See Fig. 62.) 46. Given the width of a hexagon, to find the side. — (Fig. 66.) S = side of hexagon. Method 1. Draw the line ab = given width of the hexagon. Erect an indefinite perpendicular, ac, from a. Let 12 Bl. rest at 6; 6{| To. on ab. Continue line of Bl. to ac. Mark intersection, d. Apply Formula 5. FORMULA 5. S = ad. Method 2. Bisect the line ab and erect an indefinite perpendicular ; use the square as in method 1. The in- tersection of the line bd with the perpendicular = 8. FIG. 66. — GIVEN THE WIDTH OF A HEXAGON TO FIND THE SIDE. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 31. What are the dimensions of the blade and the tongue of the standard steel square ? Into what fractional parts of an inch is each edge of a square divided ? Which is the face side of the square ? What is the length of the blade upon the scale of 1" to V ? Of the tongue? Lay off 18' 9", using the 1" scale; 21' 6"; 9' 7". Demon- 66 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY strate the use of the board measure. How many feet are there in a board 16' long, and 11" wide ? 18' long, 22" wide ? Demonstrate the use of the brace measure. The use of the diagonal scale. 32. What are the accessories for working out steel square problems ? 33. Demonstrate the use of the steel square in dividing a board into any number of equal parts. 34. Demonstrate the method of finding the number of degrees in each angle of a regular polygon. Of finding the degrees in the miter of a polygon. What is always the sum of the two angles with the hypotenuse of a right angle triangle ? What are the symbols of the blade and the tongue ? Demonstrate the method of finding the figures upon the square which will give the angles and miters of a polygon. Construct by this method an equilateral triangle; a rectangle; a hexagon; an octagon. What tool is a convenience in marking dupli- cate angles ? 35. Demonstrate the method of bisecting an angle with a steel square. 36. Demonstrate the methtxl of finding the center of a circle which will pass through three given points. 37. Demonstrate the method of finding the greatest square which can be contained within a given circle. 38. Demonstrate the method of finding a square one half the area of a given square. Demonstrate the method of finding a square twice the area of a given square. 39. Demonstrate the method of constructing a circle equal in area to two given circles. How may the problem be applied to any number of circles ? 40. Demonstrate the use of the octagon scale. What figures upon the side of a square will give the width of the side of an octagon ? Demonstrate its use. What other tool may be used in the same way ? Demonstrate the method of finding the sides of an octagon from the diagonals of a square. 41. Demonstrate the method of finding from a given side the width of an octagon. What previously given method may be reversed to give the same results ? 42. Demonstrate the method of finding from a given side the width of a hexagon. CARPENTER'S GEOMETRY 67 43. Demonstrate the method of finding the diagonal of an octagon from its given side. 44. Given the side of a hexagon, demonstrate the method of find- ing its diagonal. 45. Given the width of an octagon, demonstrate the method of finding the length of the side. By what other previously described method may the problem be solved ? 46. Given the width of a hexagon, demonstrate two methods of finding the length of the side. CHAPTER V 67. — ROOF DIMEN- SIONS. ROOF CONSTRUCTION 47. Pitches of roofs. - - There are three terms used in describing the dimensions of roof pitches: the "run" (ab, Fig. 67) is the horizontal dis- tance between the plate, b, and the point a, directly under the apex of the roof, c; the "rise" is the vertical distance between a and the apex of the roof, c; the " pitch," or " line of the rafter," is the angle or line be- tween b and c. There are three pitches in common use in the construction of pitch roofs, the half, third, and quarter pitches (Fig. 68). The angles at b and c (Fig. 67) of any one of these pitches are always the same, no matter what the dimensions of the run and rise or the plan of the house may be. The run of a pitch roof house is half of its width at the outside of the plate. The rise of any of the above pitches may be found by dividing the width of the house, or the distance be- tween the outsides of the opposite plates, by 2, 3, or 4, 68 FIG. 68. — ROOF PITCHES. ROOF CONSTRUCTION 69 as a half, third, or quarter pitch may be desired. This will give the height of the roof to its apex, measuring from the base line, or the line of the outside of the plate, upon the top of the rafters, as shown at k, Fig. 71. The rafter will be discussed later. The following, formulas illustrate the mathematical method of finding the lengths of the run and of the rise of a roof. W = width of the house. R = run. A = rise of the roof, or altitude of the triangle. W FORMULA 6. R — —. Rise of the half pitch roof. FORMULA */ Rise of the third pitch roof. FORMULA 8 Rise of the quarter pitch roof. W FORMULA 7. A = — . 2 W FORMULA 8. A = -- . o W FORMULA 9. A = — . 4 Thus, the dimensions of a third pitch roof, of a house 28' wide, would be found as follows : — 70 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY 48. The different forms of roofs are illustrated in Fig. 69. The lean-to, or shed roof, a; the pitch or gable roof, b; the hip roof, c; the gambrel roof, d; the French roof, e; the FIG. 69. — DIFFERENT FORMS OF Root's. a, -1 1 cil nr lean-to; 6, pitch or gable; c, hip; 7/\ 'J. -11 i NE8S OF THE HIP RAFTER. referring to rig. 70, it will be se"en that the plan, base line, or the run of a hip rafter,- a, of a rectangular roof of equal pitches, is at an angle of 45° with the plates of the house, and equals the length of the diagonal of a square formed by the runs of the common rafters, c, of the adjoining sides of the main house. The rise of a hip rafter is the same as the rise of the com- mon rafter which extends to the same height as the top end of the hip rafter, or which stops at the ridge against which the hip rafter is fitted, if a ridge is used. (B.) The length of a hip rafter is measured from the apex of the hip to the line of the outside of the corner of the plates, upon the top of the rafter, and is the hypotenuse of a right angle triangle, of which the other two sides are the rise and the run. Its length may be found mathematically by using the fol- lowing formula : — R = run of the hip rafter = X of Rs upon To. and BL X = bridge measure. 80 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY A — rise of the roof. H = length of the hip rafter. Rs = run of the common rafter. FORMULA 17. H = ^ V2 ft2 + A*. The length of the hip rafter may be found with the steel square thus : - FORMULA IS. H = X of I? on BL, and A on To. If a perfectly square roof is being framed, the hip rafters should be joined at the apex of the hip by the method indicated at a, Fig. 77. The first pair of hip rafters c, c, should be cut the exact length of the hip as calculated by the above formula; the plumb cut of each of the other two hip rafters d, <7, should be made shorter than rafters c, c, a dis- tance equal to one half of the thickness of the rafters r, c, for the same reason that the plumb cuts of common rafters which rest upon a ridge are shortened one half of the thickness of the ridge, as ex- plained in the last paragraph of B, Topic 50. The cuts of both ends of the hip rafters framed by this method are square with the sides, as though common rafters of the same dimensions were being cut. See Formulas 11-12. If the house is longer than it is wide, a ridge should be used; in which case, the hip rafter will have to be short- FK;. 77. — RIDGE AXD HIP RAFTKKS. a, method of joining hip rafters of a square house 6, method of joining hip rafters to u ri.Ige. ROOF CONSTRUCTION 81 ened by measuring back from the plumb cut, which in- dicates the exact length of the rafter, a distance equal to /, of Fig. 77, or one half of the diagonal thickness of the ridge; this must be measured square from the plumb cut upon the side of the rafter. In doing this, it should be remembered that the measurements of a rafter are made upon the center line of its top edge, thus the long corner of a hip .rafter, see a, of a, Fig. 79, will be longer than the actual length of the rafter. This difference will equal the distance of the hip pitch line in a run equal to one half of the thickness of the hip rafter. K of Fig. 77 shows a common rafter which should be shortened the distance from g to the end of the ridge j, parallel with the plumb cut. The length of a' hip rafter which fits against a ridge may be found mathematically by using the following formula: //i = length of a hip rafter which rests against a ridge. Rz = run of the common rafter. ,A = rise of the roof. C = constant ; found by calculating the ratio of the rise of the hip to its run ; for half pitch it is equal to .707; for a third pitch, .47; and for a quarter pitch house, .353. D = diagonal thickness of the ridge at the angle of the intersection of the hip rafter ; in a rectangular house, it would be equal to V^FTV. If a 1" ridge is being used, D = 2.823". If the ridge is a |" board, D = 1.23". TI = thickness of the ridge. FORMULA 19. 82 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY The formula would be applied to the steel square as follows : - X = bridge measure. Ri = run of hip rafter. A = rise of hip rafter. HI = length of hip rafter. 773 = hip pitch line of the thickness of the ridge. FORMULA 20. X of /?i on Bl, A on To. - -A Fio. 78. — METHOD OF FINDING THE HIP PITCH LINE OF THE THICK- NESS OF THE RIDGE. The method of finding T$ upon the steel square is illus- trated by Fig. 78. Upon the top edge of the ridge indicate the angle at which it is in- tersected by the hip, as at ab, using the constants described in subtopic C of this section - in this case, 12 To., 17 Bl — lay out /?! by the blade of the square as indicated at de\ transfer the distance aft, the run of the hip in the thick- ness of the ridge, to c] ; erect the perpendicular, /•">• ~A _ _ 63. Backing an octagon hip rafter. - - The backing of the hip rafters of polygonal roofs may be obtained by using the following formulas : - ROOF CONSTRUCTION ' 101 B = backing. R = ^ width of the house between parallel sides. A = rise of the roof. For an octagonal roof : — FORMULA 35. B = A on To., R on BL To. = B. 4 For a hexagonal roof : - FORMULA 36. B == ^ on To., R on BL To. = B. o The backing frequently is omitted upon the roofs, and the hip rafters are treated as described in Topic 53, F, under the subtopic of backing. 64. Octagon cheek cuts. — In cutting the cheeks of jack rafters for a polygonal roof, the method illustrated by &, Fig. 79, should be employed. The distance ab should be measured parallel with the plumb cut, at the top of the rafter. The length of the jack rafter, found by the method described under Topic 55, Fig. 84, is shortened the distance equal to the pitch line of one half the diagonal of the thick- ness of the hip rafter, on the line of the intersection of the jack, as described in Topic 55. The plumb and seat cuts may be obtained from the actual rise and run. 65. Irregular roofs. — In laying out the rafters of an irregularly shaped house or one with unequal pitches, a plan should be drawn showing every rafter in the roof, and the angles of their intersections with the plate, hip, and valley rafters. The lengths of. all kinds of rafters and their plumb and seat cuts may be found by using the actual figures of their rise and run, unless they are of the ordinary pitches ; then 102 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY the constants for the cuts should be used, as previously described. Thus the bridge measure of the run on BL and the rise on To. will give the length, and the plumb and seat cuts of any rafter in any roof. Each side of a roof of unequal pitches should be laid off with little attention to the intersection of the rafters and those of the adjoining sides. The run of each rafter may be taken from the plan, the rise of the jack and cripple rafters from the bevel board. Slide the square along the base line of the roof, as described in Topic 55, the rise of the common, hip, and valley rafters being found by the usual methods, the. bridge measure giving the lengths. The side or cheek cuts are usually confusing to the young workman who frames his first irregular roof, but if the principle illustrated by 6, Fig. 79, is fully understood and accurately applied, there need be no trouble, as the dis- tance ab will give the cheek cut of any angle of intersection, if measured square with the plumb cut. The same method may be used in cutting the rafters against a circle or any irregular shape. It will be seen that the eaves of an uneven pitched house will not have the same projection upon all sides if the plates for both pitches are of the same height ; therefore this defect may be corrected by raising or lowering the plate upon one or the other of the sides, or by making the bird's mouth joint so that it will give the same projection upon all sides, and so that the eaves will be upon the same line all around the house. If there is not too much difference in the pitches, this is the usual method. 66. Curb roofs is a term applied to mansard, French, and ROOF CONSTRUCTION 103 gambrel roofs, which have an angle in their contour above the plate of the house. This angle is formed by a curb plate which is supported by the rafters of the lower section of the roof, and which supports the rafters of the upper section. A curb plate is used also where a deck or flat section of the roof is necessary, for instance, where the hip and valley rafters meet in an awkward manner, or where other members of the« roof do not intersect as they should, though a deck is often desired and planned. 67. Curvilinear hips. - The hip rafter of a French or other curvilinear roof may be laid out as shown in Fig. 96. The outline of the common rafter is shown by ac, its run being a b. The run, bd, of the hip should be drawn in such a position as to receive the projection lines 1', 2', 3', etc., which should be transferred to the base line, be, by a method similar to that indicated at bd. From these points 1", 2", 3", etc., erect lines to in- tersect with horizontal lines 1, 2, 3, etc., which will give the outline of the hip rafter. 68. Flat roof. — Any roof of less rise than V in 9' is called a flat roof ; and the same methods of finding the lengths and cuts of the rafters may be used as upon a pitch roof. 69. Dormer windows are of many shapes and sizes, and are frequently used as. means of decoration, being embel- FIG. 96. — LAYING OUT A CURVI- LINEAR HIP RAFTER. 104 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY FIG. 97. — A DOUMKU WINDOW. lished to a greater or less extent. They frequently form an important element in the , architecture of a house. Their construction is il- lustrated in Fig. 97. A "lift" is a form of dormer window, used in places where a gable is either not desired or impracti- cable. It is also frequently used where economy is an important consideration, though upon the best class of work it has a good architectural char- acter. The con- struction of a lift is generally similar to that shown in Fig. 98. The finish of the dormer windows and of the lifts should be in keeping with the rest of the house ; but it should be considerably lighter, being only a detail. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 47. What is meant by the pitch of a roof ? The run of a roof ? The rise of a roof? What are the three pitches in common use? Do the angles of each pitch vary in different-sized houses? Prove it. Does a difference in the rise of a house affect its run? What does it. affect? FIG. 98. — A LIFT WINDOW. ROOF CONSTRUCTION 105 Find by the use of formulas the rises of ti half, a third, and a quarter pitch house, 26' wide. 48. Name and show by diagrams the different forms of roofs. What is a curb roof ? 49. What shape should always be striven for in laying out a roof? Why is this advisable ? 50. From what points is the length of a common rafter measured-? Is the length of the rafter affected if the lookout is cut upon the lower end ? Demonstrate the use of the formulas in finding the length of a common rafter. Could the dimensions of the r*oof be used in obtaining the cuts of the rafters ? Is it a practical thing to do ? What are the standard figures or constants used in laying out the cuts of the different common pitches? Should these figures be used to find the lengths of the rafters ? Why ? Is there any case in which they may be used for that purpose ? Demonstrate the method used in obtaining these con- stants. Will these figures give correct results if used upon a rafter which is not square with the plate ? Which edge of a rafter should generally be placed uppermost? Which part of the square should be used in measuring the run of a roof ? In measuring the rise ? What figure upon the blade is used in laying out all rafters which are parallel with the plate ? Demonstrate by the formula the method of shortening a com- mon rafter to allow for the ridge. Demonstrate the method of laying out the joint at the plate. What is the name of this joint? What is meant by " plumb height" at the plate ? What are the sizes of rafters commonly used ? How far apart are they usually placed ? 51. Demonstrate from the formula the method of finding the length of a lookout. 52. What is the value of a ridge ? Is it always used ? What gov- erns the length of the ridge of a gable roof ? Demonstrate by the use of the formula the method of finding the length of the ridge for a half hip roof. For a full hip roof. 53. What part of a hip rafter is seen in looking at a roof plan ? What is its angle with the plate, if the house is square and the pitches are equal ? Between what points is the length of a hip rafter measured ? What part of a right-angled triangle is the rafter ? Demonstrate with a steel square the method of finding the length of the hip rafter. How should the top ends of the rafters of a perfectly square hip roof be fitted -? 106 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY How much shorter should a hip rafter be cut it a ridge is used? Dem- onstrate the method of finding the neat length of a hip rafter by means of a steel square. How is the pitch line of \ of the thickness of the ridge found with the steel square ? In what respect is this method of finding the length of a hip rafter similar to that of finding the length of a com- mon rafter ? What is the relation of the run of a hip rafter to that of a. common rafter ? Demonstrate the method of finding the constant for the run of a hip rafter. What constants are used for the rises of the hips of a half, a third, and a quarter pitch roof? Demonstrate the method of rinding the plumb and seat cuts of a hip rafter by means of a steel square. How are the side or cheek cuts found ? Does the pitch of a roof change the horizontal angle at which the hip intersects the ridge? Explain the principle involved in this method of finding the cheek cut, and its application to different angles of intersection. Which end of a hip rafter is usually cut first ? From what point on the rafter is the length measured ? Demonstrate the graphic method of laying out the bevels of a hip rafter. Describe the methods of backing hip rafters. Upon which edge of the rafter is the backing laid out ? How may a roof be framed to make backing unnecessary? 54. Describe the method of finding the length of a valley rafter. How is the cheek cut found if the rafter extends to the ridge ? How is the angle found for a valley rafter which fits against a hip rafter ? 55. Demonstrate the method of using the steel square in finding the length of a .jack rafter, if the common rafter intersects the hip at the apex. If the common rafter does not intersect the hip at its apex. Demonstrate the method of obtaining the length of jack rafters working from the lower end of the hip. What are the constants for cutting the bevels of jack rafters? 56. What is the method of finding the run of a cripple rafter? What allowance should be made in the length of a cripple rafter ? Dem- onstrate the method of laying out the bottom and top plumb cuts of a cripple rafter. What should be the relation of the cripple rafter to the top edge of the valley rafter which it meets ? What must be guarded against in nailing cripples and jacks in their places ? 57. Demonstrate with the steel square the method of finding the length of collar beams. What is the purpose of a collar beam ? 58. What is the purpose and position of a strut ? Is it always square ROOF CONSTRUCTION 107 with the rafters ? Demonstrate the method of finding the length of a strut with the steel square. How may the formula of a common rafter be used in finding the length of a strut ? 59. What are the purpose and position of a purlin ? How is its length found ? Illustrate a graphic method of finding the length of a purlin. Compare a purlin cut with a hopper cut. Demonstrate the method of using a steel square, to find the cuts of a purlin or a hopper. Describe a simple method of marking a purlin from a partly completed roof. 60. Describe the method of framing an octagonal roof by cutting rafters in pairs. Of framing a hexagonal roof.- How can the length of the first pair of rafters be found ? Of the second pair ? Of the third pair ? Describe the method of obtaining the cheek cuts of the third and fourth pairs. 61. Describe the method of finding the cheek cuts of the apex of rafters for a hexagonal roof. 62. Describe the king-post method of framing a polygonal or circular roof. What are its advantages? 63. Demonstrate the methods of finding the backing for a hexagonal or octagonal roof. 64. How can the cheek cuts and the lengths of jack rafters of a polyg- onal roof be found ? 65. How may the seat and plumb cuts of any rafter be found ? How may the rise and the run of any rafter be found ? How can you find the length of any rafter of any pitch ? Is there any difference between the methods of finding the lengths -of rafters of a house of uneven pitches, and of one which has the same pitch upon each side ? Describe the method of finding the side cuts of hip, jack, and valley rafters of a roof which has different pitches. Compare this principle with that of making the side cut of a jack rafter of a rectangular roof. ' What is the effect of unequal pitches upon the eaves ? Plow may this be remedied ? 66. Describe the methods of framing curb roofs. 67. Describe the method of laying out the hip rafter of a French roof. 68. What is the greatest pitch of a flat roof house ? 69. Is a dormer window ever planned for any reason aside from light and ventilation? Describe the construction of a dormer window. What is sometimes used as sf substitute for a dormer window ? Com- pare the finish of the dormer windows with that of the rest of the house, CHAPTER VI BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 70. Boarding in. — (A.) In the warmer sections of the country, the houses #re built with nothing upon the out- side studding except the siding, but in the North, 1" boards planed to an even thickness are nailed outside of the studding with 8d or lOd com- mon nails. Upon the best houses these boards are often matched; in most cases they are laid as closely as possible, and covered with sheathing or building paper, which increases the warmth of the build- ing. ( B. ) If a heavy building is being erected, it is best to lay the board- ing diagonally, as at a. Fig. 99; the frame is thereby much strength- ened. For an ordinary dwelling house, unless exposed to severe winds, horizontal boarding is suf- ficient, if the building is well braced at the corners. (Seec, Fig. 20; c or d, Fig. 21.) Diagonal boarding is more expensive than that laid horizontally, as a 'square the width of each board is 108 Fio. 99. — Bo,\Ht)!\ BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 109 wasted, and a man can cover only about two thirds as much surface in a day. Upon many good buildings, the corners inside of the braces are often laid diagonally, and the rest of the house horizontally. (See 6, Fig. 99.) (C.) In covering or sheeting the roof, matched boards are used in some localities, and are covered with sheathing paper for warmth. This is a good method in a cold cli- mate, but as the air can reach only the part of the shingle exposed to the weather, that part will dry out, and the rest will retain its moisture. This causes one part to warp and split, and the other to decay. In a climate where durability is a more important con- sideration than warmth, boards from 2|" to 4" in width are usually laid, for sheeting or sheathing. Between them is left a space about 1" wide, allowing the air from the house to reach the under side of the shingles; this aids materially in their drying, and prolongs the life of the roof. 71. Cornices. — (A.) The cornice, or eave finish, is next in order after the house is boarded in and the roof covered, as it is essential that the roofing should be laid as soon as possible, not only to protect the house, but to allow the men to work during stormy weather upon partitions, rough floors, etc. For this work it is necessary to build a strong scaffold or place staging, or scaffold brackets, shown in Fig. 100. These are used by many builders in preference to a scaffold, as they FIG. 100. — SCAF- FOLD BRACKET. 110 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY may be put up and taken down with little trouble. They may be placed, as shown, before the house is boarded in, or may be fastened directly upon the board- ing to allow the outside to be finished. These brackets are used quite commonly in some parts of the country, more especially in the east, where the clapboards used are made with a very thin edge, so that they may be pushed under the lower edge of the course above. In other parts of the country, the siding is laid from the bottom : in which case it is plain the brackets are not so desirable, since they necessitate boring a hole through the sid- ing, as at a, for the bolt which holds the bracket in its place. (B.) The open cor-, nice (Fig. 101) and the box cornice (Fig. 102) are the types used in finishing frame build- ings. They will both admit of much varia- tion without departing from the type. The open cornice costs less than the other, but does not make so warm a house. As it projects beyond the finish of the house, the water from a leaky gutter will run outside ; while, if there is a leak in the eaves of a box cornice, the water is very likely to work its way into the outside walls of the house. If a box cornice is built, as shown at a, Fig. 102, with the FKJ. 101. — OPKN TOHNK K. BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 111 frieze (b) extending a little above the top side of the plancer or soffit (c) as at 2, a space of \" being left between the frieze and the soffit, any water which finds its way into the cornice will drop behind the bed mold (d) outside of the house. The chief objection to this is that water may stain the frieze, but it is better that this should happen than that the water should find its way inside of the house. FIG. 102. — Box CORNICE. The fascia (e) should extend about \" below the plancer. It will be noticed that the outside of the gutter (/) is lower than the part extending under the shingles ; this allows the overflow to run over the gutter and drop clear of the house. A box cornice does not dry out so readily as the open cornice, and therefore will need to be repaired more often. There are several forms of gutters and eaves illustrated in Fig. 103, besides that of Fig. 102, all of which should 112 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY have a pitch of at least 1" in 20' toward the outlet. The forms shown at a and b are used commonly upon ordinary buildings ; the sheet metal lining of b should extend under the second course of shingles above the gutter. The form of gutter shown at Fig. 102 is an old one, still largely used upon the best residences. This gutter, which should be made of cypress, is some- times put up as shown at h, in Fig. 102. In Fig. 103, / is frequently used upon dwellings. G is the type of gutter used upon large buildings, as it can be more easily repaired than any of the other forms; its pitch can be obtained without showing at the eaves, and it pro- vides a place from which small re- pairs upon the roof can be made without building a scaffold. Upon the best class of work, every joint of a wooden cornice or gutter, should be thoroughly doped with white lead or thick paint, as the cornice is difficult to repair and the use of lead will prolong its life. The joints in the moldings of the cornice and whatever splicings are necessary, should not be made with a square butt, but should be mitered as shown in Fig. 104. This rule ap- plies to all moldings and other finish which are length- ened. Great care must be used to make all joints in FIG. 103. — EAVES TROUGHS OH GUTTERS. BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 113 the least conspicuous places and to face the miter in such a direction as to prevent the prevailing winds from driving into the joint, and water from £= i'v.^1' - 3 running into it. i i . ' 4 72. Gable finish. - FIG. 104. — LENGTHENING MOLDINGS. Gable finish should cor- respond with that of the sides of the house in all of its de- tails ; and if a box cornice is to be returned upon the gable, the return should be the same as the projection upon the sides, as at k in Fig. 102. The peak of the gable is a suit- able place for ornamentation, but, while a simple design often may be desirable, much of the decoration which is made there is not artistic. It is impossible for many workmen to realize that expensive elaboration is not so pleasing to the cultured taste as a simple, dignified design. 73. Outside finish. — (A.) The lumber used for outside finish should be selected for its ability to stand the weather and to hold its shape. Only well-seasoned wood should be used. The most satisfactory kinds are white pine, cypress, redwood, and poplar. Though the last does not stand so well as the others, yet, if kept painted, it will give good satisfaction. (B.) Accuracy is needed in putting on the outside finish; the joints should be perfectly square ; the time spent in securing plumb and level, framing and finish will be more than compensated for, because the work of finishing down the outside then can be done to marks made by a try-square, instead of scribing or using a bevel, and the use of the block-plane will be reduced to a minimum. For the same 114 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY Fics. T idff %. ^v . 105. — CORNER BOARDS. reasons the door and window frames should be squared carefully and set perfectly plumb. (C.) The narrower the corner boards and the door and window casings, the less chance there is of their shrinking and opening the joints at the end of the siding, and unless a quarter round is used in the corner, as shown at a, Fig. 105, the lap of the corner board at b should be made upon the side where it will be the least conspicuous. Joints made in splicing corner boards should be made as shown at b, Fig. 105, and doped to prevent the rain from driving into the splice. Corner boards are usu- ally 4" wide, though they may be of any width to suit the fancy of the builder or architect, pro- vided that a nailing for the ends of the siding is secured upon a stud. Siding, when rnitered at the corners, as shown at a , Fig. 106, shows no corner boards, and gives but one joint through which the weather may find access to the house. In making this sort of corner finish the miter box is used, as shown at b. The distance between the back of the box and the FHJ. 10G. — MITERED CLAPBOARDS. BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 115 back of the clapboard or siding, at c, should be the same as it will be when it is in place. Care should be used that the clapboard is not sprung in the sawing. (D.) Sheathing paper usually is laid under the siding of a well-built house, and its use always should be en- couraged, especially in the colder parts of the country, as nothing else costing as little adds so much to the warmth of the building. It should be laid under the corner boards, casings, frieze, and water table, and should project sev- eral inches on the boarding, so that the paper which is laid under the siding will lap over and make a tight joint. (E.) Fig. 107 shows a few of the different forms of siding. It is largely a matter of prefer- ence, which form is the best, though the matched forms are the warmest. A is the form largely used in New England ; it is laid from the top, the lower courses being pushed under the upper. In laying this form of siding, the scaffolding may be taken down as soon as the siding has been finished and has re- ceived the first, or priming coat of paint ; thus when the house is sided the scaffolding is out of the way, and the house has been primed. As the chalk lines will not be covered up, a number may be made at once ; this is an advantage over making a line for each course as it is laid, which is necessary if the siding is laid from the bottom. In finding how much each piece of siding is to be ex- posed to the weather, it is the usual custom to estimate the exact height which the siding is to cover, and divide it by FIG. 107. — FORMS OF SIDING. 116 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY 4|", or the desired exposure, thus allowing the difference to be distributed throughout the entire height, instead of in the last few courses. This method is not used upon matched siding, as the width of that is fixed, and with the exception of a little variation upon the last few courses it is carried up the width of the boards. Beveled siding usually is laid from 4" to 4£" to the weather ; the exact distance being found by the above method, and laid out upon the corner boards, or casings of the opening. As beveled siding is laid from the bottom, it is laid to a chalk line upon the course below a straightened edge, or a siding gauge is often used to assist in keeping the courses above parallel. All joints in the siding and other vertical square joints, should be cut a little under, not enough to be seen, but to insure that the joint is perfectly tight upon the outside. (F.) It was the custom formerly to lead every joint of the outside finish of a house, but this is one of the good habits of our fore- fathers which we have allowed to fall into disuse. While it adds to the expense of the labor upon a house, it also adds much to its durability. (G.) The joints between the tops of all openings and the siding should be flashed with tin, zinc, lead, or copper, as shown at a, Fig. 108. A cap with a wash rabbet is often preferred. (See b.) (H.) // shingles are used for siding, they are laid from 5" to 6" to the weather. There is much to be said in their a FIG. 108. — FLASH- ING OVEH OPEN- INGS. BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 117 favor, as they are cheaper, warmer, and more easily kept in repair, and the side walls may be boarded in with sheet- ing, like the roof, with a space between boards. Besides these advantages, shingles may be stained, a process cheaper than painting, and more artistic ; the shingles may be arranged in designs to assist the general effect of the house. (I.) The water tabk, or base, Fig. 109, generally is used upon all but the cheapest houses, as it gives a finished appearance to the lower part of the build- ing, besides allowing the drip, from the sides of the house, to fall clear of the foundation, over which it would otherwise wash, depositing the accumulated dirt. 74. Conductors. — Conductors, or down- spouts j are made of round, or corrugated, galvanized iron, and are held in their places by brackets adapted to the shape of the con- ductor. The corrugated spouts are better, for if they become clogged with leaves, and water freezes in them, they will expand and not break, as the round ones will. 75. Finials. — Finials made of sheet metal are used as an ornament to finish the peaks of gables, turret roofs, etc. They may be made of almost any design, but as they are kept in stock in many different forms and sizes by different manufacturers, it is rarely necessary to design a special form. Wooden finials are used a great deal in certain locali- ties, and. if kept well painted are satisfactory. They are sometimes made as part of a king-post for a turret roof, as shown in Fig. 95. FIG. 109. — WATER TABLE. 118 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY 76. Circular gutters. — Circular gutters and moldings may be made by three different methods, one of which, and perhaps the most common, is to saw a plank of the right thickness to the desired sweep, and work the mold- ing around it. This is done usually at the planing mill, but the objection to this method is that the pieces upon ordinary towers are very short, and as they are cut out of wide plank there is considerable waste of material. If this method is used, the joints must be doped, and the work well painted. Only thoroughly seasoned stock should he used upon this kind of work, as in seasoning the sweep will change, and the molding may check badly. Another way of treating moldings which have to be carried around curves of any common radius is to select enough straight -grained, perfect pieces of mold- ing to reach the entire distance twice, with allowance for waste. These should be taken to a mill and cut with a sharp, smooth-cutting circular saw, as shown in Fig. 1 10, alternating the cuts in the different pieces, in order to replace the saw cut, so that when the work is done there will be one piece of molding sawed into thin strips which will bend around any ordinary sweep, as the pieces may be sawed to any thickness. They are then put into place upon the building, each piece being nailed upon the one under it and each joint plentifully doped with white lead. BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 119 If this is done accurately and the work well smoothed and painted, it is difficult to discover from the ground how the work was done. Mil FIG. 111. — SCARFING A MOLDING FOR BENDPNG. Another method, adaptable to small moldings, is to saw into them, as in Fig. Ill (see Topic 22, A, of " Inside Finishing"), though this method is not recommended upon work which is to be exposed to the weather, as there is so e much short wood be- tween the cuts that may drop out after the work has been in place a few years. The cuts may be made either square, as at a, or at an angle, as at 6; if made in the latter way, the wood will bend more evenly. 77. Rake moldings. -(A). The method of finding the shape of rake moldings is il- lustrated in Fig. 112, all of the moldings but the regular patterns FIG. 112. — LAYING OUT A RAKE MOLDING. being Worked OUt by 120 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY hand if there is no mill conveniently located where cutters may do it, though even then it is often more economical to work the molding out on the bench if properly shaped molding planes are available. Worked rake moldings are not used so much to-day as they were formerly, as upon common buildings the eaves are so designed as to make them unnecessary. The molding ab governs the shape of the others, and is used upon the level eaves ; it should be drawn at the angle at which it will rest in relation to the level, and working lines should be drawn from it, at the pitch of the gable. . The molding cd is the pattern used upon the gables, or the pitch of the roof. The molding cf is to be used upon the finish of the upper edge of a shed roof, though this form of rake molding is rare. The lines, 1, 2, 3, etc., are for the purpose of determining the points which give the contour of the moldings, and in every case they are the same distance from the back line, xd, and xf, as from the line xb. The rake cornice and molding upon a moderately expensive house are often put on as shown in Fig. 113, the ends ii3. — RAKE BOX of fne rafters being square with the CORNICE. . pitch of the roof, and the facia mitered around it, upon which the molding is nailed. By many carpenters this method is considered neither architectural nor workmanlike ; it certainly permits quite a saving in labor, and aside from appearances is quite as efficient ; it is used upon many good buildings. BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 121 (B.) The method of making a miter box for the sawing of rake moldings is shown in Fig. 114, in which c, a, b, of A shows the plan of the house, and ad the miter of the mold- ing ; the diagram, ai, 61, Ci, di, shows the method of finding the miter if the building is not rectangular in plan. B shows the pitch of the roof, and b a z the plumb cut of the mitered corner, which is the same as that for common rafters. C shows the top view of the miter box, the angle bad of which equals the angle bad of A, according to the angle of the corner of the house. A line, squared across the miter box from d, gives x ; for a square house, a# will equal the width of the box. D shows the edge view of the miter box, the angle b a z of which equals the angle b a z of B. Draw the line ax, of C, square with az and line xy, parallel with line az, and therefore square with line ax. E showrs the angle which is the miter of the rake mold- ing, in order to obtain which, ay, of D, is laid off upon box E, and a line squared across the box as at wy\ by connecting a and w, we have the miter. Thus, za of D, and aw of E, will give the down or plumb cut and miter of / c a a. x 6 ' y -?/ \ s\ o V X | \ur " — ^— 3 £ a- Y FIG. 114. — RAKE MITER Box. 122 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY the gable piece of the rake molding ; the horizontal, or eaves piece being cut in the miter box to the angles shown in bad of A. For a square corner this latter cut may be made in a common miter box. It is not necessary to make a separate box for each cut, as one box three or four feet long will be ample for any job of cornicing. For cutting the rake miter of the other end of the eaves, the cuts should be made the other way, or the molding cut the other side up, though unless great care is used this ; method is apt to give unsatisfactory results. Some mechanics make a deep box with the ordinary miter cuts, and hold the rake mold- / ings at their angles when in position, as the • horizontal angle of each miter joint is always / the same upon corners of the same horizontal / plan or angle. / 78. Siding a circular tower. — In siding a / circular tower with beveled siding, it will be / found necessary to cut the lower edge of each / piece to such a form that when it is in j place it will be parallel with the line of the ; water table. / Let abc (Fig. 115) Y/^ represent the section of a piece of siding. ^^^J7i Place it with its back "* *-• - -#1 at the angle it will FIG. 115.— SIDING A CIRCULAR TOWER. assume when in posi- tion upon the house. The distance be equals one half of the width of the tower, or the radius of its plan, BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 123 indicated by the arc bg. Erect a perpendicular of indefi- nite length from e, and continue the line ac, or the face of the siding, until it intersects the perpendicular from e at d. With d as the center, and db as the radius, describe the arc ef. If the bottom edge of each piece of the siding is cut to this arc, there will be no trouble in fitting it around the tower, unless the circle is so small that the material will not bend. Clapboards should be bent dry, if possible; if they are soaked in hot water, they will bend more easily. Cold water is generally used, as hot water is not always available. 79. Scribing. — Scribing is the term applied to the process of fitting wood to the irregu- larities of any uneven surface, as, for instance, in fitting a piece of ceiling against a stone wall, as in Fig. 116. Here it is necessary that the tongue edge of the piece of ceiling- should stand plumb, resting at one or more places as at a, as it is to be the first board of a ceiling partition. Dividers should be used to transfer the irregularities of the stone wall to the piece of ceiling. First, fasten the ceiling firmly in the place as indicated, and set the compasses at the greatest distance between the stone wall and the edge of the ceiling, as at b. In making the mark, or scratch, /, the points of the compasses should be carried perfectly level, or square with the edge of the ceiling ; to insure accuracy the greatest depressions and angles, as at c, should be transferred to the ceiling by means of a try-square. FIG. 116.— SCRIBING. 124 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY s^ I --- dr- ~f \. ~~~: Ti — ••-• Some workmen prefer a pair of scribing dividers which have very stiff legs and a pencil attachment that makes a mark which may be more easily followed in cutting than one made with the legs of a compass. The cut should always be made so that the joint will fit on the face ; therefore the face of the piece being marked, the wood in its thickness should be cut far enough back to insure that it will not prevent the piece from making a joint on the face. This process is useful in fitting against mold- ings, finish, floors, or in any place where a joint, not perfectly straight, is necessary. 80. Dome roof. — In boarding a dome roof, it is the usual custom to lay the boards ver- FIG. 117.- BOARDING , DOME tically, as shown ill HO.T. Fi covered as soon as possible? Why is it economy to spend time in securing accuracy in the framing of a building, and in putting on the casings and corner boards? What is the advantage of narrow corner boards and casings? Where two boards arc lapped together, is there any preference as to which side the lap should come upon? How should a joint 1x3 cut to insure a perfect fit upon the face ? Should moldings and butt joints in the finish be made square ? Is it best to put anything upon the joints ? Is it the common practice? How much is siding usually laid to the weather? Describe the different forms of siding commonly used. Compare the methods of siding generally used in the east and in the west. What is gained by the use of sheathing paper? How is it put under corner boards and other finish ? 74. How are conductors usually made? Which is the best form? Why? BOARDING IN. OUTSIDE FINISH 127 75. For what are finials used? How are they generally made? How is a wooden finial sometimes used in framing a tower roof ? 76. Describe the method of getting curved moldings out of plank. What is the objection to this method ? Describe two other methods of getting out sweeps. Compare the three. 77. Describe the method of finding the shape of rake moldings. How are they usually made ? Describe a miter box for making the cuts for a rake molding. How may a roof be finished without using a rake molding ? 78. Can straight siding be laid upon a circular tower? Describe the method of finding the sweep of the lower edge. 79. What is meant by " scribing " ? In fitting a piece of ceiling against a rough brick wall, what is the first step ? At what place should the dividers be set ? How should prominent points be marked upon the ceiling ? What tool is preferred for scribing by many work- men to a pair of common dividers ? 80. Describe the method of boarding a circular dome roof. CHAPTER VII ROOF COVERINGS 81. Shingles. - (A.) In shingling a roof, the shingles should be laid from 4" to 5" to the weather; the steeper the pitch, the greater the exposure which may be allowed. A quarter pitch roof should be laid with an exposure of from 4" to 4J" to the weather ; a third pitch from 4£" to 4£" ; and a half pitch roof from 4|" and 4f ". The distance should in no case be more than 5", as each shingle should lap over the two courses below it, as at a, Fig. 118, and at w, Fig. 119. A 10" shingle would not permit this if more than a 5" lap were allowed. It is necessary that the finish of the eaves, or the outside members of the cornice, should be in place before the lowest course of shingles is laid. This course should bo laid double, as shown. This is done by fastening a shingle at each end of the roof, and tacking one every eight or ten feet, with the desired projection, generally about 1£". A chalk line is then stretched, supported by these shingles, and the lower course laid to it. The joints of all courses should 128 FK;. US. — SHINGLING A ROOF. ROOF COVERINGS 129 ber broken at least f ". By this is meant that the joint of the upper course should be at least \" from the nearest one of the course below, as at c, Fig. 118. It is good practice to break the joints of two courses as far as possible. A shingle over 8" wide should be divided in the middle, and laid as two shingles, or it may split over the joint of the course below after it has been ex- posed to the weather. Two 4d. nails should be used in each shingle, and should be put in not less than 9" or 10" from the butt, or thick end, for if a joint or a nail hole in a shingle comes over a nail in the course below, rust may cause a leak here before the roof needs repairing elsewhere, difficult to locate. If the shingles are very dry they should be wet thor- oughly before laying, or laid with the joint at least J"open ; otherwise they will buckle and split when wet by the rain. If the best results are desired, the shingles should be nailed with cut nails, which do not rust out so quickly as wire nails; unless used in a damp locality the wire nails prove satisfactory. There are two methods of shingling above the lowest course ; one is to tack a straight edge to the course below, and lay the next coiirse against it, as shown at d, Fig. 118. FIG. 119. — SCAFFOLDS FOB SHINGLING. Such a leak will be 130 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY A number of shingles may then be laid upon the roof and nailed rapidly. Another way, which is preferred by many, is to make a chalk line mark ; by this method, as the shingles are laid one at a time, two courses may be carried along together. Care must be used that the joints between the shingles be kept square with the eaves ; if the butts are not square, the worst of them should be made so with a saw. The scaffolding for finishing down the outside and put- ting on the cornice should be put up to prepare for shin- gling, as it may be used to advantage in laying the lower courses, and in working around the roof. Some workmen lay the lower courses from above, and in repair work it is often better to do this, than to go to the expense of a staging or scaffolding. There are numerous devices for shingling-scaffolds, or supports upon the roof, two of which are shown in Fig. 119. That shown at a is a very simple device, being nothing but a piece of 2" X 4", with pieces of board about 20" long nailed upon it about six feet apart, through the upper end of which, at z, a couple of nails are tacked into the roof. Shingles are used by some workmen for this purpose, in place of the 20" boards. This form is preferred by many to the more elaborate bracket shown at b. Several of these are placed at convenient distances, and a board laid across them, providing a much safer foot- hold than does the one above described. (B.) We will discuss three methods of shingling hips. Tin shingles are used in two ways, as shown in Fig. 120, a and b. In nailing the hip shingles laid by either of the ROOF COVERINGS 131 two methods, it is necessary that nails should be driven near the points to resist the tendency to warp. Tin shingles should correspond in shape to that of hip shingles; they should be at least 1" wide, and long enough to reach well under the tin shingles of the course above, as at w. At a, the tin shingles are laid so that the lower end will just be covered by the hip shingle of the course above; this method is not so serv- iceable as that illustrate^ at b, as the short grain of the hip shingles at z will in time split off, and the hip be destroyed, though the former makes the better-looking hip when first laid. In &, the tin shingles are laid over the hip shingles, flush with the lower edge of each course; this protects the short grain, and is a very satisfac- tory way of finishing a hip. In all cases, care should be used that the line of the hip is kept perfectly straight from the eaves to the peak. Some workmen make their tin shingles long enough to allow the bottom end to be turned down the thickness of the butt of the hip shingle, and drive nails through the tin into the butt. This holds the lower end of the tin shingle without any nails directly through it, which should be avoided if possible, as the action of the weather is apt to make FIG. 120. — HIP SHINGLING; METHODS 1 AND 2. 132 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY a leak where a nail is unprotected. The top end of the tin shingle should be held by driving nails where they will be covered by the hip shingle of the course above. In Fig. 121 is shown the third method of hip shingling, the short grain of the above methods being done away with. The tin shingle z may be cut square upon both ends and laid under the hip shingle out of sight, as at a, the hip shingles forming a row of raised shingles along the hip. In this case, the hip shingles may, if necessary to hold them down, be nailed at the butt end, d, as the upper end of the " sight" at 6, or that part of the shingle "to the weather," is not so thick as the lower end of the course it fits against, as at c, which may leave a space between the back side of the hip shingle, d, and the face side of 6, unless the upper shingle is nailed down to a joint. This should be avoided if possible, and the nails driven where the hip shingle of the next course will cover them. In most cases these nails will be sufficient. The hip joint may be mitered, as at e, or lapped, as at/. The hip is less apt to leak than any other place upon the roof, as the water runs away from it; but since it is so prominent, the work should be well done, and all lines from the ridge to the eaves should be straight and parallel. FIG. 121. — HIP MKTIIOD 3. ROOF COVERINGS 133 (C.) In valley shingling, a strip of tin, lead, zinc, or copper 20" wide should be laid in the valley, as at a, Fig. 122, and nailed only at the extreme edges. The best shingles should be laid in a valley, allowing a wash of at least 6", as at b, except in the valleys of small roofs, dormer windows, etc., which may have sheet metal 16" wide, and a wash of 4f ". Shingles should not be laid in a valley be- yond the place where those of the course above will meet them ; for instance, course c need not be continued beyond d, where it meets the course above. This leaves a triangular space, def, in which the shingles do not lie closely against the tin, but which allows the air to enter under the valley shingle of course g, thus assisting the shingles in drying out, and also making it unnecessary to drive nails through the tin, as would be required if the courses were carried out to the valle}'. The valleys usually leak before any other place in the roof, as they are apt to be more in the shade, and to have less circulation of air ; the snow and leaves find lodgment there, and are often retained after the rest of the roof has dried out. Another method is to lay the valley shingles close, using a tin shingle under each course, an application of method 1 i FIG. 122. — VALLEY SHINGLING. 134 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY under hip shingling. This is used by many, but it does not stand so well as a valley with a wash, as it does not dry 'out so readily. (D.) In repairing a split shingle upon a roof, a tin shingle about 3|" X 1" may be pushed under the split as in Fig. 123 ; by turning up the upper corners, as at a, the tin shingle will be held in its place. If there is a serious leak, the place should be reshingled ; the old shingles should be torn off by means of a thin piece of steel shaped as in Fig. 124, and from 24" to 30" long, which may be thrust under JJUL FIG. 123. — REPAIRING A SHIN- OLED ROOF. FIG. 124. — SHINGLE NAIL CUTTER. the shingles to cut the nails by means of the edges 6. Unless this is done, it is difficult to stop the patch upon the upper end. 82. Flashing. -- Flashing is the term applied to the process of making a joint water-tight, by fitting tin, lead, zinc, or copper in such a way as to prevent the water from running into the joint. The flash- ing of slate roofs should be of copper, as the slate will, if laid properly, out- wear all other sheet FIG. 125. — FLASHING A DORMER WINDOW. metals. ROOF COVERINGS 135 Fio. 126. — SKYLIGHT FLASH- ING. Figure 125 shows two methods of flashing around a dormer window, or any place where shingles or clapboards join a shingle roof. At a the flashing runs under the roof shingles and carries the water under the course of shingles above, causing them to decay more quickly than they otherwise would, while if flashed as at & the water will run onto the roof and away ; a makes the better looking job, but b is the more satisfactory. For flashing around a skylight, or any smooth wooden work, the sheet metal should be cut into the vertical side of the joint, as shown at a, in Fig. 126, and the top bedded in white lead, and nailed into the cut securely. At the upper side of the frame there should be a cricket, or saddle ; this is a board, covered with sheet metal, for the purpose of shedding the water, as shown in Fig. 127. This saddle also should be placed behind chimneys, and all other places where a roof pitches toward a vertical or perpendicular surface. A brick chimney always should be counter flashed, as in Fig. 128. The flashing, a, should be carried under the course above, and nailed well under the butt of the next course, but not nailed to the chimney at all, as there is a certain amount of shrinking and swelling of the timbers FIG. 127. — SADDLE OR CRICKET FLASH- ING. 136 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY of the house, as well as of expansion and contraction of the chimney, as it alternately heats and cools, besides the settling which always takes place in a new house. If the flashing is fastened rigidly to the chimney, a leak will probably occur sooner or later. In putting the counter flashing, b, in brick work, the mortar should be raked out, and the flashing metal entered at least f ", and held in place by a metal wedge, or a hook- shaped tack made especially for that purpose. A IQd. common nail is some- times used for the same purpose, the head holding the flashing in place, after which the joint is well pointed with elastic roofing ce- ment. At c is shown a third method, with the flashing resting upon the shingles. To repair the roof, the counter flashing may be lifted up, and the flashings easily removed, while by the other methods the flashing would be destroyed. Flashing should extend not less than 3" above the roof in its lowest place, and in a pocket or place where snow is apt to accumulate, it should be high enough to insure that there will never be any trouble. No shingles should be laid over the metal, as the nail holes will cause a leak, though the flashing should extend under the shingles to the first row of nails. FIG. 128. — COUNTER FLASHING. UOOF COVERINGS 137 In flashing any but a very simple roof, there generally will be places where the soldering iron will have to be used, and the carpenter who neglects to have the work done properly will find that his reputation will suffer ; the architect or owner may make him pay for any damage to the inside of the house resulting from a leak. 83. Metal roofs. — (A.) In recent years, steel roofs have come into use in different parts of the country. The standing-seam steel roof (Fig. 129, a) is well adapted for use upon barns and warehouses. If used upon a roof which has no long valleys, it may be laid rapidly by unskilled labor with a little oversight, and will give good satisfaction, though steel is soldered with the greatest difficulty. Tin roofs may be laid by this method, and are to be preferred to the flat seam shown at d, as the roof may be repaired more easily, and expansion and contraction in different temperatures will not be so apt to break the metal. Dealers who handle the standing seam roofing generally have a set of tools to lend with which to lay the roof. They are very simple in their operation, doing all the work of laying the roof except fitting and driving the nails. Steel or tin roofs should be painted upon the under side before being laid ; then if kept painted upon the outside, they usually prove satisfactory. If a metal roof is nailed directly upon the boards of the FIG. 129. — METAL ROOFS. a, standing seam ; d, flat seam. 138 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY roof, it will buckle, and in time crack, on account of the expansion and contraction ; therefore roofing tacks, (Fig. 129, 6), strips of tin or steel, are hooked over a standing seam, as at b, or a flat seam, as indicated by the dotted lines at c, to allow the roof to expand and contract, as the temperature changes. The boarding of a roof which is to be covered with metal, should be perfectly smooth ; upon the best work the roof is covered with matched boards. Upon all roofs which are to receive metal, the boards should be thoroughly seasoned, and carefully nailed down, to prevent any future warping and twisting. All nailheads should be set below the surface of the wood, to prevent the frost from backing them out. If there are knotholes, they should be covered with tin, and there should be no places where a corner of the boarding is likely to bear against the under side of the metal. Under the roofing there should be laid one or more thicknesses of paper, which add much to the life of the roof. Do not use tarred paper, as the acids in it will destroy the metal. Some builders object to the use of paper under a metal roof, claiming that it holds moisture, but it is certainly the best practice to use it, because it furnishes a cushion which protects the roofing from the roughness of the roofing boards ; this is more important than any possible condensation. If the carpenter is responsible, he should see that the work is done properly by the tinsmith, and that the right grades of all materials are used ; only high-grade metal is suitable for roofing. (B.) Tin roofs are often laid with a flat seam, commonly known as a lock joint, which should be made as shown in ROOF COVERINGS 139 Fig. 129, at c, and thoroughly fastened, not nailed through the tin into the roof, but through the cleats. These should be at the top of the sheet, which is usually 20" X 28", and should be placed between 12" and 14" apart. The seam should be well pounded down to make the joint as tight as possible. In soldering, rosin should be used as a flux, but no acid, as it is apt to destroy the tin. No rosin should be left upon the tin, as it will prevent the paint from holding well. Where a tin roof comes against a place which is shingled or sided, the tin should be turned up, and the shingles or clapboards of the lower course laid over it. After the tin roof is laid, a good plan is to leave it for a few days, as it will then take the paint better, and if it is exposed to a shower, no harm will be done ; this does not mean that an exposure to a long rainy spell is recom- mended. The workmen must be careful to leave no loose nails upon the roof while at work, for if stepped upon they may punch a hole through the roof. 84. Slate roof. — A slate roof always should be laid by a thoroughly competent and reliable man, as any skimping of the work may not be discovered until the roof has served a part of its usefulness. It is not good practice to lay a slate roof with a rise less than 5" to 1'. The slate should be carefully selected for its color, and a brand used that is known to be tough and non-absorbent. The ordinary wire nail should not be used to fasten the slates, as it will rust off before the roof needs repairing otherwise. A tinned or galvanized nail will give * good satisfaction, but upon the best work copper nails 140 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY should be used, and in all cases they should be driven where there is no danger of a joint coming over them. In flashing a slate roof, the most durable material is generally the cheapest in the end ; therefore copper is the best, though it is used only upon the most expensive work. Tin is used ordinarily and, if well painted before laying, and kept in good condition, it will be satisfactory, though the necessity of climbing over the roof to paint it is often the cause of breaking slates. Sheet lead often is used upon buildings of medium cost. 85. Gravel roofs. — Gravel roofs are used upon flat- roofed buildings. First it is necessary that there should be a smooth, tight roof upon which this is to be laid. There should be four thicknesses of roofing felt, laid with a lap of two thirds of the width, starting with one third of the first course of the second layer of felt at the eaves. All the layers after the first should be well mopped with pitch. The first should be laid dry, because, if laid in pitch, it will be cemented to the roof, and the shrinking of the roofing boards will be apt to break the paper. The last layer should be nailed with 3d common nails, driven through tin disks about 30" apart. A thick coat of moderately hot pitch is then laid on, over which is spread clean, well screened gravel, which, if laid in cold weather, should be warmed thoroughly. In flashing a gravel roof the felt is turned up from 4" to 6", and held to a brick wall by nails driven through wooden laths, or -to wood with nails driven through disks of tin ; the whole is carefully bedded in thick pitch, and thoroughly doped. Care should be used that pitch is not daubed where it is not needed. ROOF COVERINGS 141 There are many different kinds of patent roofings upon the market, many of which are perfectly satisfactory, but a carpenter cannot afford to risk his reputation by putting on anything which he does not know to be all right, and which has not stood a reasonable test of time. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES 81. What is meant by the term "to the weather" ? How much of a shingle is usually laid to the weather ? Why is a shingle not laid 6" to the weather ? What should be in place before the shingles are laid ? In what respect does the lowest course differ from those above? What is the usual method of laying the lowest course ? What is the least a joint should be broken? What sized nails and how many should be driven to each shingle? Why not more? Describe the method of treatment and the laying of dry shingles. Describe and compare two methods of laying shingles. Is it always necessary to build a scaffold in order to reshingle a roof ? Describe and compare four different methods of hip shingling. Describe the common method of valley shingling. Describe a closed valley, and compare it with an open valley. How are tin shingles used in repairing leaks ? How should a large leak be repaired? Describe the special tool used in removing shingles from a roof. 82. What is meant by "flashing"? Describe and compare three methods of flashing a shingle roof. Why is it the best method to use counter flashings around chimneys ? How should the upper edge of the flashing be fastened to a skylight frame? How should the counter flashings be fastened to a brick chimney? How is it usually done? How should the flashing be put on in places where snow might collect ? 83. Describe the standing-seam roof. How should the under side of the metal be treated before being laid ? How should a tin roof be fastened to the roofing boards ? How should roofing boards be laid ? What should be their quality? How should nailheads be treated? How should knotholes be treated ? Why is it advisable to paper a roof before putting on the roofing ? What kind of paper should be avoided ? 142 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY Describe a flat-seam roof. How should the roofing material be se- lected ? How should a flat-seam roof be fastened ? What should be used as a flux in soldering a tin roof ? Is it the best plan to paint a tin roof as soon as it is laid ? 84. Wliat is the least rise which a slate roof should have? What kind of nails should be avoided ? What is the best kind to use ? What kind of nail is generally used ? What is the best material for flashing a slate roof ? What is ordinarily used ? 85. When are gravel roofs laid ? Describe the method of laying a gravel roof. How is a gravel roof flashed ? What should be the atti- tude of the carpenter regarding patent roofings? CHAPTER VIII PLASTERING 86. Laths. — (A.) Laths are made of poplar, pine, spruce, oak, or almost any wood which may be desired, though the harder woods are less de- sirable, for if not thoroughly seasoned before laying, they may twist and either break the clinch or crack the mortar. Laths are usually made at the sawmills of the waste and edgings, and are of two widths, I" and 1J". The former gives a better clinch to the mortar, while the latter makes the spaces between the .studs stiffer; thus the conditions are about even as far as holding the mortar is concerned, but the wider laths may be laid faster, and require fewer nails. (B.) To minimize the danger of cracks in an inside corner, it should be tied together by breaking the joints of the laths by some method similar to that indicated in Fig. 130, pieces of 2"x4" (e) being nailed on after the laths are in place. On account of the length of time this takes, it is done only upon the best class of work. Ordinarily, the laths are 143 Fio. 130. — LATH- ING AN INSIDE CORNER. 144 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY laid the entire height of one wall, and nailed upon the stud, /, as shown by the dotted lines at c, and the fur- n M n ring pieC6j d' — — tjj '•! ! -I— nailed upon !-h i:' " i-.i • them to fur- = nish a nailing -" for the laths ~ of the other wall. Joints should not be made in the laths upon the n stud above 1 either side of E a door frame, as the swing- ing and slam- ming of the door will in time break the plastering at these joints. Laths should not be laid more than •%$" apart, with one 3d fine nail to each bear- ing. The joints of the laths of a plain wall should be broken every 12 or 15 laths, as in Fig. 131. When the laths are laid directly upon a wide timber, their edges should be cut under, as shown in Fig. 132, to allow the mortar to FIG 132._LATHISO ON A WlI)E Clinch. TIMBER. U LI U FIG. 131. — LATHING A STRAIGHT WALL. PLASTERING 145 (C.) An outside brick wall less than 16" in thickness should have furring strips laid upon it, upon which laths should be laid. This allows an air space, which insures against moisture destroying the surface of the plaster, or causing the paper to peel off. (See D, Topic 14.) Studs for lathing should be 12", 16", or 24" between centers, as the common length of laths is 48". (See Topic 24.) Upon most work 16" is the usual distance, but 12" is sometimes used upon heavy buildings ; 24" is often the distance between centers of rafters, as sufficient strength is thereby secured, and unnecessary weight and expense is avoided ; 16" and 20" spacing is common. (D.) There are several forms of patent laths , some of wood made in the form of matched boards, which add much to the strength and warmth of the building. Others are of metal, and are used chiefly upon fireproof work, and for fitting around circular walls and awkward places. In localities where considerable building is in progress, there are men who do nothing but lathing, and who are exceedingly expert at it. As these men usually are paid by the thou- sand it is the carpenter's place to prepare the nailings. 87. Corner finish. — Some form of corner finish is a necessity upon outside corners of a plastered wall, and galvanized metal corners should be nailed upon the laths. Of these there are several kinds, one of which is shown in Fig. 133. There is little Choice among them, They FIG. ISa. — METAL CORNERS. 146 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY FIG. 134. — PLASTER BEAD. have supplanted all other methods of corner finish upon the best class of work. Strips or casings should not be used upon corners, as they always make a bungling job, while the metal corners are perfectly firm and rigid. Another, and until recent years the common way, is to finish the corner by a corner bead, as shown in Fig. 134. This method makes more work for the plasterer, as the plastering has to be stopped against it, forming a querk, as at a, but it is still used to some extent, since if well done it makes a good-looking corner. 88. Grounds. — Grounds should be nailed upon the studs around all openings before the house is lathed, at a distance sufficient to allow the casings to cover them, as shown at a, Fig. 135. They are also nailed to the bottoms of the partitions, at the proper height to receive the top of the baseboard, as at 6, and a short strip for furring behind the base, as at c. They are for the purpose of giving the plas- terer a ground upon which he may run his straightedge, to insure a straight wall, against which the finish may be fitted. The sizes of grounds vary in different localities; in some places they are f " X 1", laid so that the laths and plaster will be I" thick. They are sometimes made of J" FIG. 135. — GROUNDS FOR PLAS- TERING. PLASTERING 147 square material, which makes the plaster |" thicker. If the grounds are to receive the nails of the finish, they are sometimes 1" wide. 89. Plastering. — (A.) In making mortar for plastering, it is always wise to purchase some well-known make of lime, as it varies in quality and strength; but it is usually safe to allow 3 bushels of sand to one of lime and f of a pound of hair. Sand for plastering should be coarse, sharp, and clean ; that taken from a river bed may be clean, but usually it is not sharp, though it is often used for mortar where none other is obtainable. To test sand for clay or loam, put it in a glass of water. After being stirred, the sand will settle to the bottom, and the loam and clay, if present, will settle upon it. Another way is to squeeze a little damp sand in the hand ; if it is free from clay or loam, it will fall apart as soon as the hand is opened. If in doubt as to whether or not the sand is sharp enough, examine it with a microscope : if the corners of the grains are rounded, and the surface smooth and glassy, the sand should not be used. Hair should not be put in the mortar until the lime has thoroughly slaked, as the heat will destroy it. Either cow's or goat's hair is the kind generally used, the latter being preferred, as it is longer, finer, and mixes better. Manila and wood fiber are used to some extent as a substitute for hair, it being claimed that they are not affected by heat from imperfectly slaked lime. It is a good plan to allow the mortar to stand a few days before it is used, as the quality of it is much improved, and 148 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY there will be no small lumps left unslaked, which often happens in mortar which has been made too hurriedly. (B.) The plastering upon the best buildings is usually three-coat work. The first, or scratch coat, consists of a layer of mortar \" in thickness, spread evenly over the laths, and well pressed between them to form a clinch. The durability of the work depends to a great extent upon the strength of this clinch, so care should be used to make it effective. After the scratch coat has hardened from two to four days, it is scratched so that it will form a good key for the next coat, though some plasterers sweep the wall with a coarse broom while this coat is moist. The scratch coat should be nearly dry, so that it will be stiff enough for the second or brown coat to key well into the scratches, and at the same time not so dry that the brown coat will not unite to it. If it is too dry, it should be dampened. After the brown coat is hard, but not thoroughly dry, it is ready for the skim, or putty coat, which is made of a thin coat of lime and plaster of Paris, and worked down very carefully to a smooth, hard finish. If the skim coat is not well put on, or if the plastering underneath is improperly dried, small cracks probably will appear upon the wall. There are several methods of doing the different parts of the work, but the above is the method generally fol- lowed. Upon work where economy is necessary, quite satisfac- tory results are obtained by two-coat work, in which the first coat is left in nearly the shape of the second coat, as above described ; after drying sufficiently, the finishing PLASTERING 149 coat is laid directly upon it, being a little thicker than the skim coat of three-coat work. This method is not recommended where the best results are desired, as the skim coat is apt to crack or peel off. Generally it is the carpenter's place to close in for the plasterer, by which is meant the closing of all openings to keep out cold and drafts which would cause freezing or uneven drying. Many builders plan to have the window sashes in place before the plasterers begin their work, especially in the winter time, but in general it is the custom to make rough frames and to cover them with a cheap cotton cloth, which allows the light to pass through, but keeps out the drafts. If the air is very dry and warm, this is sometimes as necessary as it is to keep out the cold in winter, for if plaster dries too rapidly, it will crack badly ; the surface should not dry faster than the back. When it is necessary to have fire to assist in dry- ing out plaster, or to keep it from freezing, it is generally the plasterer's place to maintain it. In many parts of the country, it is rarely necessary to use these precautions, but in parts where there is danger of the plaster freezing, or of drying too rapidly or unevenly, all reasonable precau- tions should be taken. There are a number of different makes of prepared plaster upon the market, which are fast gaining the favor of architects, as they are lighter than lime mortar, more easily applied, dry more quickly, are less apt to freeze, and are not so liable to crack after the wall is finished, and when the building seasons. There is little doubt that ultimately they will be used almost universally, as they are now specified upon the best work. 150 CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY 90. Back plastering. - - Back plastering consists of lay- ing a coat of plaster upon laths which are nailed upon the inside of the outside boarding between the studs, and is frequently used in the outside walls of the better houses in the cold climates, as it adds much to the warmth of the building. Only one coat of low grade mortar with a little hair is necessary, but it must be well clinched and spread thickly, though it may be put on very roughly, as it is out of sight. It is not so expensive as it may seem at first, and the additional comfort with the resulting econ- omy of fuel will repay in a short time the extra cost. 91. Deadening. - By deadening is meant the con- structing of floors and partitions so that the passage of sound is re- duced to a min- imum. Figure 136 shows a method in which a weak mortar, or mineral wool, is the means of deadening a floor, the mortar being of the proportions of one of lime to seven or eight of sand, the hair being omitted altogether. If used in a par- tition, laths should be laid diagonally, as Fl; metal, for plastering, 145. Corner boards, 114. Corner posts, 28 ; built, 29. Cornice, 109; durability, 111; joints, 112 ; open and tx>x, 110. Counterflashing, 135. Covering roof, 109. Cricket, for flashing, 135. Cripple rafters, 91, 92. Crowning edge of rafter, 74. Curb plate, 103 ; roof, 102. Curvilinear hip rafters, 103. Cuts of rafters, for polygonal roofs, 101; graphic method, 85. Damp proofing, 10. Deadening, 150, 151. Deck roof, 103. Diagonal scale. 55. Dividers, for use in scribing, 123. Dome roof, 70. Doors, fireproof, 50. Dormer window, 103 ; finish, 104 ; flashing, 135. Down draft in chimneys, 19. Downspouts, see Conductors. Draft, in chimneys, 19 ; in stone cutting, 9. Drain, blind, 12; cellar, 10; open, 13 ; open tile, 7, 10, 12 ; pitch of, 10. Eaves, finish of, 109, 111; of uneven pitches, 102. Engineer, 6. Excavations, size of, 6. Expansion and contraction of metal roofs, 137. Fascia of cornice, 111. Finial, with king-post, 100; use of, 117. Finish, wive, 109, 111; gable, 113; outside, 113. Fire, protection from, 51 ; walls. 50. Fish plate, 35. Flashing, 134; around brick chimneys, 135 ; counter, 135 ; cricket, 135; dormer window and skylight, 135; gravel roof, 140 ; slate roof. 140; soldering, 137. Flat roof, 103. Flitch plate girder, 39. Floor joists, crowning edge of, 32 ; double, 32 ; carrying headers, 32 ; mortised, 23 ; relation to girders, 28 ; relation to sills, 31 ; sizing, 32 ; spacing, 32 ; spiking, 24. Footing course, damp proofing top of, 11 ; INDEX 173 Footing course, distance below the surface of the ground, 7 ; on a side hill, 7 ; projection of, 6 ; resting partly on a ledge, 8 ; width of, 2, 3. Foundation beds, 2, 3 ; laid on asphalt, 12 ; laws concerning, 3 ; laying out, 3, 4 ; of slow burning construction, 47 ; underground, 9 ; walls, the thickness of, 18. Frame, balloon, 26 ; full, 23 ; half, or combination, 23. Framing of sills, 27. French roof, 70, 102, 103. ' Front of house, location of, 3. Frost, action of, 7. Gable, finish, 113; ornamentation of, 113 ; roof, 70. Gambrel roof, 70, 103. Gas, sewer, 10. Girders, use of, 28 ; flitch plate, 39 ; trussed, 38. Girts, mortised, 23 ; raised and sunk, 28. Graphic method of finding rafter angles, 86. Gravel, foundation bed, 2 ; roof, 140. Grounds, for plastering, 146. Grouting, 14. Gutters, circular, 118; .cypress for, 112 ; of cornice, 111 ; pitch of, 112. Hair for mortar, 147. Half pitch roof, 68. Headers, brick, 15; in floor, 32. Hexagonal roof, rafters of, 99. Hip, lines, 132 ; roof, 70 ; shingles, 130. Hip rafters, 79 ; backing of, 87 ; connection with ridges, 80 ; curvilinear, 103 ; dimensions of, 79, 83 ; plumb and seat cuts, 84 ; side or cheek cuts, 84. Hoppers, see Purlins. Howe truss, 40. I beam, 8. Irons, stirrup, 28. Irregular roofs, 101. Jack rafters, 89 ; for polygonal roofs, 101. Jerry building, 8. Joints. (masonry), horizontal and bed, 9; shove, 14. Joints (wood), between corner board and siding, 114 ; cutting under, 116; drawbored, 23 ; flashed, over openings, 116; mortise and tenon, 23 ; of hip shingles, 132. Joists, floor, deflection of, 32 ; doubled, 33. King-post roof, 100, 117. Knotholes, covered with tin, 138. Land, waste of, 3. Lathing, breaking joints, 144 ; on wide timbers, 144 ; over door frame, 144. Laths, cutting, 76, 145 ; patent, 145 ; sizes, 143. Lattice, under porch, 36. Leaks around chimney, 136 ; in cornice, 110; in shingle roof, 129. Lean-to, or shed roof, 70. Ledger board, 26 ; fitting, 29. Ledges, through cellar walls, 7, 12 ; through cellar floor, 7. Lift in roof, 144. 174 INDEX Line of common rafter, 68. Linings, metal, for gutters, 112; for valleys, 133. Lock joint of metal roof, 138. Lookout, 71 ; allowance for, 71, 77. Mansard roof, 70, 102. Mason, relation to carpenter, 20. Metal corners for plastering, 145. Metal roof, condensation on under side of, 137; expansion and contraction, 137 ; for porch, 37. Mill construction, 44 ; details of. 45 ; its use, 45. Mineral wool for deadening, 150. Miter box, 114; for rake moldings, 119. Moldings, circular, US; rake, 119. Mortar, clinch over laths, 143; for brick laying, 14 ; for plastering, 147 ; hair for, 147. Mortise and tenon joint, 23 ; effect upon the strength of timbers, 28. Mud, or silt, for foundation IMK!. '2. Nails, for metal roof, 139; for slate roof, 139 ; shingle, 129; sunk l>clow surface of board, 138. Octagon roof, rafters of, 9S. ( )gee roof, 70. Openings in brick work, 17 ; studding at, 34. Outside finishing, 113; accuracy in, 113. Paint, on brickwork, 19 ; on wooden posts, 49 ; priming coat of, 115. Paper, building or sheathing, 109 ; tarred, 13S. Partitions, brick. 50; bridging, 35 ; setting, 34 ; Partitions. vertical relation of, 34. Patent, roofings, 41 ; laths, 145. Piles, 2. Pitches of roofs, 68 ; cuts for different, 72. Pitch face of stone work, 10. Pitch (asphalt) for roofing, 140. Pitch roof, 70 ; hip rafters of, 83 ; jack rafters of, 91. Plancer of cornice. 111. Plastering, back, 150 ; brick walls, 19 ; different coats, 148 ; inside corner, 143 ; metal corners for, 145 ; mortar for, 147 ; protection of soft, 149. Plate, curb. 103 ; wall, 16^ wooden, is. Plumb, and level framing, 113; cuts of common rafters, 73 75; height of rafter at plate, 75. Pocket in roof, 130. Porch, construction of, 35; floor, 35 ; foundation of. 30 ; posts, 37. Posts, mill construction, 48; painting, 49; porch, 37. Purlins, position and use of, 94 ; angles and cuts, 95-97. Pyramidal roof, 100 ; framing, 100. Quarter pitch roof, 08; exposure of shingles of, 128. Quarter round, in corner boards, 114. Quilt, see Sheathing Paper. Rabbet, wash, 116. Rafter, common, 71 ; cripple, 91 : crowning edge of, 74 ; hexagonal, 99 ; hip, 79 ; jack, 89; INDEX 175 Rafter, length of, 74 ; line of, 68 ; measure on steel square, 54 ; octagon, 98; valley, 88. Rake, miter box, 121 ; molding, 119. Ramped rail, 37. Relation of carpenter and mason, 20 of carpenter and plasterer, 149. Relieving arch, 17. Repairing shingled roof, 134. Ribband, see Ledger Board. Ridge, allowance for, 71, 75; cut of common rafters, 73 ; length, 78 ; use, 78. Rise of roof, 68. Rock, face, or quarry face, 10 ; for foundation bed, 2. Roof, apex of, 68 ; boarding for sheet metal, 138; construction, 68; covering or sheeting, 109 ; curb, 70, 102 ; dimensions, 69 ; dome, 70 ; lean-to, 70 ; pitches of, 68 ; plan, laying out, 70 ; shed, 70 ; slate, 139. Roofing felt, 140; patent, 41; tacks, 138. Rosin, flux for soldering, 139. Rowlock arch, 17. Rubblework, 9. Run of roofs, 68. Saddle, for flashing, 135; see Cricket. Sand, for plastering, 147 ; as foundation bed, 2 ; test, 147. Scaffold, or staging, 109, 115; brackets, 109; use in shingling, 129, 130. Scantling, to straighten, 35. Scarfing, or molding, 19. Scissors truss, 39. Scribing, 123; dividers for, 124. Seat cut, of common rafter, 74 ; of hip rafter, 83 ; of jack rafter, 91 ; of valley rafter, 88. Selection of timbers, 41. Sheathing paper, 108, 115; for deadening, 151. Sheeting, roof. 109 ; cutting, 76. Sheet lead flashing, 140. Sheet metal linings, for gutters, 112; for valleys, 133. Shingles, double courses, 128; dry, "129; exposure, 128 ; for siding, 116 ; hip, 130; repairing, 134 ; tin, 131 ; wide, 129. Shingling, 128; hips, 130; valleys, 133. Shoulder cut, beveled, 30. Side, or cheek cut, cripple rafter, 92; hip rafter, 84 ; jack rafter, 91. Siding, beveled, 116; circular tower, 122 ; different forms, 115; exposure, 115; mitered, 114. Sills, 27. Silt, for foundation bed, 2. Sizing floor joists, 32. Slate roof, 139 ; nails, 139. Slow-burning construction, 44 ; its uses, 45. Soldering, flashing, 137 ; tin roof, 139. Spalls, stone, 8. Splayed timbers, 16. Square, large, 6. Standing seam, metal roof, 137. Steel construction, its fire-resisting qualities, 44. Steel roofs, 137, 138. 176 INDEX .Steel square, Ixmrd measure, 53 : brace measure, 54 ; description of, 53 ; diagonal scale, 55 ; for laying out braces, 29 ; octagon scale, 62 ; principles and applications of the, 56-65; problems in roof construction, 68- 104; rafter measure, 54. Stirrup irons, 28. Stone, laying, 10; quarry faced, 10 ; stratified, 10. Stone wall, laying, 8 ; pointing, 8. Stonework, 9. Straight edge, its use in shingling, 129. Stretcher, brick, 15. Strut, use, 28 ; length, 93. Studs, double, 34 ; for lathing, 145; in half frame, 26; mortised and tenoned, 23 ; sizing, 33 ; spacing, 33 ; splicing with fished joint, 26 ; straightening, 35. Subsoil, nature of, 1 ; testing, 2. Surface water, 1. Tacks, roofing, 135. Tail beams, 32. Third pitch roof, 68 ; exposure of shingles of, 128. Thrust of arches, 17. Timbers, defects of, 42 ; large sizes, 42 ; selection and dimensions of, 41. Tin roof, 138 ; flat, or lock seam joint, 138 ; painting, 139. Traps, 7, 10, 12, 13. Trench, inside of foundation, 12 ; outside of foundation, 10. Trimmers, 32. Trusses, different forms, 38-40. Try-square, its use in scribing, 123. Unequal pitches, in eaves, 102 ; in roofs, 10 ; side cuts of rafters of, 102. Valley, rafters, 88 ; shingling of, 133. Veneer, ashlar, 9 ; brick, 16. Ventilated wall, 18. Wall plate, 16; ventilated, 18. Wash, in valley, 133 ; rabbet, 110. Water, in cellar, 7 ; proofing, 1113; table, or base, 117. Wearing floor, over deadening, 151 ; in mill construction, 49. White lead, for bedding flashing, 135 ; joints doped with, 112, 114, 116. Windows, dormer, 103 ; mill construction, 50. Wooden bricks, 18; plate. IS. Wood fiber, use, 147. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY $1.25 By HENRY GANNETT, Geographer of the United States Geological Survey and the Twelfth Census; CARL L. GARRISON, Principal of the Morgan School, Washington, D. C. j and EDWIN J. HOUSTON, A. M., Ph.D. (Princeton), Emeritus Professor of Physical Geography and Physics, Central High School, Philadelphia. IN this book commercial geography is presented in a simple, methodical, and logical way, to the end that its study shall be not only informative, but truly educative and worth while. The treatment is divided into three parts: Commercial Conditions ; Commercial Products ; and Com- mercial Countries. The first portion gives a clear, brief statement of the physical, social, and economic conditions that largely influence commerce in every region. ^[ The second part treats of the cultivation of the soil, and of the vegetable, animal, and mineral products that enter com- merce. The great commercial staples are taken up separately, and their production, manufacture, and use described. Dia- grammatic maps and graphic diagrams are presented, showing where each staple is produced, and the percentage of the world?s product supplied by each of the chief contributing countries. ^| The final and largest division is devoted to a careful description of each of the countries of the earth with special reference to its industries and commerce. Maps of the countries indicate the location of the chief industrial centers, the trade routes, and the production areas. Diagrams or tables of imports and exports, etc., are also numerous. 5(~ The present condition of the world's commerce is care- fully and accurately portrayed. In the text figures of abso- lute quantities and values have been largely avoided, because it is the relative rather than the absolute quantities that the pupil should remember. Hence the products of countries are usually given in percentages of the world's total. Absolute quantities can easily be deduced by comparing these percent- ages with the tables at the close of the book. AMERICAN BOOK COM PA NY WILLIAMS & ROGERS COM- MERCIAL PUBLICATIONS THE success and popularity of these books for business colleges, and tor commercial departments of high schools, are well-known. No other series of a similar nature is so widely used, and none fits the pupil so well for the practical pursuits of later life. Among these publications are: MODERN ILLUSTRATIVE BOOKKEEPING Introductory, Advanced, and Complete Courses. MODERN ILLUSTRATIVE BANKING OFFICE ROUTINE AND BOOKKEEPING Introductory, and Complete Courses. BOOKKEEPING AND BUSINESS PRACTICE THREE WEEKS IN BUSINESS PRACTICE PRACTICE SYSTEM OF BUSINESS TRAINING FIRST LESSONS IN BOOKKEEPING NEW INTRODUCTORY BOOKKEEPING NEW COMPLETE BOOKKEEPING ADVANCED BOOKKEEPING AND BANKING MENTAL COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC BUSINESS ARITHMETIC MOORE'S NEW COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC GANG'S COMMERCIAL LAW TEST QUESTIONS IN COMMERCIAL LAW MILLS'S MODERN BUSINESS PENMANSHIP NEW PRACTICAL GRAMMAR BELDING'S COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE STUDIES FOR LETTERS ENGLISH PUNCTUATION PITMANIC SHORTHAND INSTRUCTOR SEVENTY LESSONS IN SPELLING • TEST LESSONS IN SPELLING NEW CIVIL GOVERNMENT DESCRIPTIVE ECONOMICS A M E R I C A N B () O K C O M P A N Y CMS) ADVANCED ARITHMETIC By ELMER A. LYMAN, Professor of Mathematics, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti THIS book meets the requirements of secondary and normal schools. In its preparation the author has aimed to make the work a study of the fundamental principles of arithmetic, and thereby emphasize the disciplinary value of the subject, and at the same time to apply these principles to the solution of practical business problems. To this end such methods as are used in the best commercial practice are em- phasized throughout the work, and obsolete methods and problems are carefully excluded. ^f The exercises have been selected largely from actual busi- ness transactions, and nearly all of the problems in the appli- cation of percentage have been secured from business houses, or reviewed by representative business men. The chapters on banking, and stocks and bonds, give information of a prac- tical character which, though indispensable to a proper under- standing of the subject, is rarely found in text-books. ^j In order to economize time, pupils are encouraged to use every practical labor-saving device known to the science of arithmetic, but so-called short processes, which are compli- cated or cumbersome, have been carefully avoided. The use of checks is also strongly recommended, because it contributes greatly to accuracy in results, and cultivates a spirit of self- reliance. ^j In addition to the special methods for solution given in connection with the various subjects, a chapter is devoted to the general method of approach to any problem. This offers pupils much helpful advice in attempting the solution of prob- lems of a miscellaneous character, such as are given in exam- inations. Attention is also called to the historical notes, to the treatment of graphical representations, and to the chapter on approximate results. AMERICAN BOOK COM PA NY C58) COMPOSITION-RHETORIC (Steps in English Series) By THOMAS C. BLAISDELL, Ph.D., Professor of English, Michigan State Agricultural College £1.00 THIS book, which aims to teach young people to write effectively, is suited for use in any secondary school. Its ingenious method of treatment, its fresh and interesting character, its great simplicity and suggestive- ness, will prove stimulating and inspiring to every student. The work lays a foundation for the appreciation of literature. ^f Models from the master writers are furnished and pupils are asked to use their own experiences as working material. They are taught to write accurately by being trained to recognize, and thus to avoid, their errors. Principles are studied only when they are encountered, each pupil being obliged to learn merely those of which he is ignorant. ^f The most important qualities which characterize literature are each taken up in turn and considered. Selections from the works of famous writers are inserted at frequent intervals for purposes of illustration, and it is shown by analysis how they appeal to the feelings, and why they attain the various results necessary to an interesting expression of their thoughts. The student is taught that literature is full of suggestion, and he is made to understand the various devices by which an author conveys this suggestion. ^[ When these methods have been discovered and sufficiently illustrated, the learner is asked to use them in writing about familiar experiences. In these exercises, which are very numerous, while accuracy of expression is sought, fluency of expression is considered of chief importance. 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